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82 Articles

There are 206 bones in the human body

The 206 bones of the adult human skeleton make up a strong, flexible framework that protects our vital organs and allows our bodies to move, as well as being a mineral store and stem-cell reserve. Bone is a composite material, constructed from three basic ingredients: collagen strands, a sugary protein glue and inorganic calcium salts. The collagen fibres are arranged in alternating layers, crossing over one another, providing a flexible scaffold, and calcium salts are glued in between for strength and rigidity. The outside of each bone is composed of plates, or hollow tubes, of dense cortical bone, supported on the inside by a honeycomb network of spongy trabecular bone. This network is slightly flexible and helps to distribute the load, curving the tensile and compressive forces across the ends…

There are 206 bones in the human body

Caffeine is an alkaloid

Whether it’s a milky latte or a double shot of espresso, coffee has become an important morning ritual for many people all over the world. Its rich taste and aroma serves as a welcoming wake-up call and the caffeine helps keep you alert for the rest of the day, but did you know this is all down to the 1,000 different chemical compounds present in every cup? Acids, alkaloids, carbohydrates and proteins, either found in raw coffee beans or produced by the roasting process, work together to create a complex mixture of flavours and that distinctive coffee smell. WHAT’S IN YOUR CUP? ACIDS Coffee contains a variety of acids. Perhaps the most important is chlorogenic acid, which consists of two main compound groups. Dicaffeoyl acids impart a metallic, bitt…

Caffeine is an alkaloid

Identical twins don’t have identical fingerprints

Identical twins form when a single fertilised egg splits in two during the early stages of development, and as a result, the siblings share exactly the same genetic information. But our bodies are shaped not only by our genes, but also by our environment, and although the twins share the same womb, their environments are subtly different. Each twin is in a different position, and experience slight variations in contact with amniotic fluid. One might have a longer umbilical cord than the other, and one might receive more oxygen or nutrients. Fingerprints develop during the second trimester, and these small differences add up to produce noticeably different fingerprints.…

Identical twins don’t have identical fingerprints

Cold feet are caused by reduced blood circulation

Cold feet are typically caused by reduced blood circulation. When your body is cold, it constricts your blood vessels, reducing blood flow to your skin in order to conserve heat around your internal organs. In some people this reaction, called vasoconstriction, is triggered even at relatively warm temperatures, leading to cold feet and hands. Cold extremities are quite common in cooler weather and are unlikely to indicate any serious medical condition. However, if they go white you may be suffering from Raynaud’s phenomenon, a condition where arteries cut offalmost all circulation to hands and feet in cold temperatures.…

Cold feet are caused by reduced blood circulation

The more oxygen there is the hotter a Bunsen burns

German chemist Robert Bunsen invented the Bunsen burner in the mid-19th century as a means to an end. His work focused on emission spectra, which is the bright light produced by different elements when they are heated in a flame. To carry out this experiment he required a hot, clean flame, which gave him the idea for the Bunsen burner. A modern Bunsen burner consists of a straight metal tube, measuring about 13 centimetres (five inches) long, attached to a base stand. A thin rubber tube known as a gas hose connects to the bottom and supplies gas to the Bunsen. The metal collar works to adjust the amount of air that enters the tube by altering the size of the air hole at the base. By allowing oxygen…

The more oxygen there is the hotter a Bunsen burns

Your body is made of stardust

The elements that make up our bodies were forged inside ancient stars. Hydrogen is the smallest element, and formed in vast quantities after the Big Bang, along with a less plentiful supply of helium, and even smaller amounts of lithium and beryllium. But making the heavier elements required more energy. Hydrogen and helium gas clumped together to form clouds, and these clouds collapsed to form stars with enough heat and pressure to trigger nuclear fusion; inside the stars, the nuclei of hydrogen atoms slammed together, fusing to form helium. As the stars aged, the helium atoms started to create even heavier elements, including carbon, nitrogen and oxygen. Depending on the mass of the star, this process sometimes continued, producing the nuclei of most of the elements up to number 26,…

Your body is made of stardust

Some people are immune to mosquito bites

Immune is not quite the right way to describe it, but some people are less attractive to mosquitoes due to smell. A study on twins conducted in 2015 showed a genetic link – identical twins are more likely to be equally attractive to mosquitoes than nonidentical twins. But that’s not all. While genetics play a role in body odour, there are lots of other factors that can contribute to our overall smell. Our body temperature affects the evaporation of scent molecules into the air, and mosquitoes are also attracted to the molecules that we exhale when breathing.…

Some people are immune to mosquito bites

Eating spicy food kills off nerve endings

Tolerance for spicy food is partially inherited, but repeated exposure can also desensitise pain receptors. The sensation of eating spicy food is produced by the trigeminal system, which along with our sense of taste and olfactory system, allows us to perceive flavours. The capsaicin in spicy foods activates pain and heat receptors. Those who eat spicy food have less sensitive pain receptors. Eating spicy food regularly at a young age kills off nerve endings, increasing a person’s tolerance.…

Eating spicy food kills off nerve endings

Smoke occurs when there isn’t enough oxygen

Wood is made from a combination of water, hydrocarbons, and minerals. As the temperature rises above 149 degrees Celsius (300 degrees Fahrenheit), the hydrocarbons start to vaporise, floating up into the air. They combine with oxygen, burning and releasing energy that is visible as a hot flame. As they burn, they release carbon dioxide and water vapour, both colourless gases that you cannot see. Sometimes there is not enough oxygen for these evaporated components to burn, and instead, they continue to float upwards, rising in the hot air. The evaporated oils and tars clump together as they rise, forming fine particles known as smoke. The particles move about randomly, and as they collide with the invisible particles that make up the air, they change direction, producing the ever-changing swirling patterns…

Smoke occurs when there isn’t enough oxygen

A lack of friction enables ice skaters to perform

Figure skaters appear to glide effortlessly across the ice, performing breath-taking moves and spins, often at unimaginable speeds. At their core, these impressive performances rely on simple scientific principles, including friction, momentum and Newton’s third law – every action has an equal and opposite reaction. It’s actually a lack of friction and the physical properties of the ice that enable a skater to glide, turn, speed up and stay in motion during a routine. Friction is a resisting force that occurs when two objects slide against one another, dissipating their energy of motion. A figure skater performing on smooth ice with sharpened skates will therefore encounter very little resistance. Some friction is still required for skating, though, as it enables skaters to start a stroke and come to a complete…

A lack of friction enables ice skaters to perform

Altitude sickness is caused by a lack of atmospheric pressure

Adventurous explorers can spend months training prior to scaling mountain peaks, but regardless of fitness level, high altitudes can take a toll on the human body. Between around 1,524 and 3,505 metres (5,000 and 11,500 feet) above sea level is considered high altitude. Most travellers will start to feel the effects of high altitude sickness as they attempt to acclimatise to the change in atmosphere at these heights. The most common symptom is shortness of breath, which is due to a lack of atmospheric pressure. At these heights, air molecules are more dispersed, so less oxygen can be inhaled. In order to compensate, your heart rate will increase and the body will produce more red blood cells, making it easier to transport oxygen around the body. The low humidity…

Altitude sickness is caused by a lack of atmospheric pressure

A Nobel Prize was awarded for an explanation of hulahooping

THE FORCES BEHIND HULA HOOPING Although hula hooping comes relatively naturally to most of us, it’s actually quite a complex task from a biomechanical viewpoint. In fact, the 2004 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded for an explanation of hula-hoop dynamics. The hoop is able to spin due to the momentum created by pushing your hips and stomach back and forth, and by slightly shifting your weight as it spins. The reason the hoop keeps spinning is due to the forward motion of your hips, and not because of any circular movement, which is wrongly implied by the word ‘hula’ in its name. This activity has recently gained in popularity due to its potential health benefits. It works the abdominal muscles in your core and studies have shown that using…

A Nobel Prize was awarded for an explanation of hulahooping

Crystallised alcohol is a multitude of colours

If you leave a drop of an alcoholic beverage, to dry out, the water and alcohol will eventually evaporate to leave behind crystallised sugar. If you then look at this sugar through a polarising microscope, you will see a pattern of bright colours as light refracts through the crystals. The effect is created using two polarising filters, one between the crystals and the light underneath them, and another positioned at a 90-degree angle from it, between the crystals and the microscope lens above them. As these filters force light waves to oscillate in one direction, rather than all different directions as they would normally, the two polarising filters should block the light completely. But when the light passes through the crystals, it refracts, allowing it to pass through the…

Crystallised alcohol is a multitude of colours

It is entirely possible for a singer to shatter glass

All objects have a frequency at which it vibrates. Sound waves from the singer’s voice vibrate air molecules surrounding the glass, causing the glass itself to vibrate. This is known as resonance. The glass would need to have microscopic defects big enough to buckle under the pressure for the glass to shatter, though. The chances of finding such a glass are slim, particularly as the fractures cannot be seen by the naked eye. Furthermore, the note the singer hits must match the glass’s resonant frequency.…

It is entirely possible for a singer to shatter glass

Mint makes water taste colder because of menthol

Cold-sensitive nerves are coated in tiny pores known as TRPM8 receptors, which are usually firmly closed. When the temperature drops, the channels open, and positively charged ions flood into the nerve cell triggering an electrical signal that travels towards the brain. Although mint does not actually reduce the temperature of the mouth, it contains an ingredient called menthol, which can stick to the TRPM8 receptors. This makes the receptors more sensitive than before, meaning that if you drink a glass of cold water the channels will open more easily, making it feel colder.…

Mint makes water taste colder because of menthol

The secret to popping candy is in the recipe

Popping candy explodes on the tip of your tongue, creating a fizzing sensation in the back of your throat. The secret to its unique fizz, crackle and pop is actually all down to how it is made. In fact, popping candy is created in a similar way to traditional boiled sweets. Sugar, corn syrup, water and flavouring are all mixed together and then heated so that the water boils off. If the resulting sugar syrup solution would be left to cool at this stage, you’d end up with regular hard sweets. But in order to give the candy its unique popping potential, the molten mixture is exposed to high-pressure carbon dioxide gas at about 40 times atmospheric pressure. This causes small bubbles of gas to form within the solution.…

The secret to popping candy is in the recipe

It’s possible to 3D print a car

Being able to buy your own 3D-printed car from a factory nearby may soon become a reality with the Strati from Local Motors. Created using BAAM (big-area additive manufacturing), the world’s first fully drivable 3D-printed car will be electric and have just 40 parts – significantly fewer than the 2,000 parts most vehicles include. Mechanical components such as the battery, motors, wiring and suspension are sourced from Renault’s Twizy, an electric city car, while everything else on the Strati that could be integrated into a single material piece – including the frame, exterior body and some interior features – has been printed using ABS plastic reinforced with carbon fibre. The two-seater design currently takes 44 hours to print, and Local Motors aims to be able to speed the process up…

It’s possible to 3D print a car

Motorcyclists can defy gravity on the Wall of Death

The Wall of Death – also known as the motordrome or silodrome – is a barrel-shaped cylinder, usually made out of wood. Motorcyclists perform stunts while riding on the vertical wall. The Wall of Death is a popular travelling carnival act dating from the early-20th century, but there are just a few left today. The motorcyclist starts at the bottom with the crowd looking down into the drum. After ascending a ramp to gain speed, they then begin circling the vertical wall, held in place by centripetal force. There are three forces working on the cyclist: gravity, the wall and friction. The cyclist must maintain a constant speed to keep the motorcycle’s direction of motion constantly changing. They must also lean up at an angle (with respect to the…

Motorcyclists can defy gravity on the Wall of Death

The shape-shifting boat has six shapes

The Kormaran is set to make waves – both figurative and literal – in the boating industry. By operating the hydraulic arms electronically, the driver is able to change the Kormaran into six configurations, including a three-hull ‘trimaran’. This works by moving the outer hulls by differing amounts, altering the number of hulls in contact with the water. A hydrofoil formation is also possible, which results in extremely efficient travel thanks to an 80 per cent reduction in water resistance due to the hull not touching the water. Measuring 6.4 metres (21 feet) long, it is built using quality materials such as carbon fibre, titanium and teak. The Kormaran’s power comes from the 493-horsepower triple-jet drive, enabling it to reach a top speed of 70 kilometres (43 miles) per hour,…

The shape-shifting boat has six shapes

The AirBoard can get 1.5m off the ground

Ever wanted to fly but don’t have the time or money to train as a pilot? The new AirBoard could be the answer. The smallest one-person aircraft in the world, it can carry the weight of a single person using its powerful battery. The AirBoard is classified as an ultralight quadcopter aircraft and it’s small enough to fit in the boot of your car. Its thrust is provided by four highspeed electric motors that each power a propeller. The drive system is managed by an Intel processor chip that incorporates a ground collision sensor to keep the board at a set height above the ground. This system comes into its own when you take the AirBoard into the great outdoors. Designed for both urban and rural use, the quadcopter…

The AirBoard can get 1.5m off the ground

The Porsche 919 Hybrid produces 500 horsepower

The 24 Hours of Le Mans is the oldest active endurance race in the world. It has been held every year since the inaugural race in 1923 and is often referred to as the ‘Grand Prix of Endurance and Efficiency’. Keeping a car running for 24 hours is no mean feat; excellent fuel, tyre and braking efficiency is a must if you want to stay out of the pit lane. The race is also very demanding for the drivers. They form part of a team of three, often driving for two hours at a time, which challenges them both physically and mentally. During the 24 hours, the competitors will typically cover distances of over 5,000 kilometres (3,107 miles). The record distance of 5,410.71 kilometres (3,362.06 miles) was set in…

The Porsche 919 Hybrid produces 500 horsepower

Electric cars can be charged by the sun

Electric and hybrid cars are becoming much more of a common sight on the roads, with many plug-in charging stations now visible in car parks and service stations around the globe. However, there’s a new technology now available that enables these cars to be charged without the need for a mains power supply, instead drawing on energy from the Sun. This system of solar panel parking works by converting daylight energy into electric energy, trickle-charging cars ready for use. Photovoltaic panels mounted to the roof of the parking lot or carport absorb the Sun’s rays and convert the solar energy into electric energy compatible with the automobile, which is fed in via an adaptor to the car’s standard electric charging port. However, while this can reduce costs of electricity…

Electric cars can be charged by the sun

Jet skis work in accordance to Newton’s third law

You probably know these highpowered machines as Jet Skis, but that’s just a brand name. The real term is a personal watercraft (PWC) and they can hit speeds of over 100 kilometres (62 miles) per hour and churn out around 220 kilowatts (300 horsepower) of power as they zoom across the water. Since a PWC weighs as much as five adults, the engine has to be really powerful. The engine tasked with reaching these speeds uses Newton’s third law of motion, which states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. A PWC works by sucking water through a grate at the bottom of the craft and shooting it out the back. This force pushing backward from the engine propels the craft forward. It’s similar to…

Jet skis work in accordance to Newton’s third law

Solar Impulse 2 can take flight without fuel

On 9 March 2015, the first-ever round-theworld flight powered only by solar energy took off. The Solar Impulse 2 started its mammoth journey in Abu Dhabi, with the aim of flying over oceans and continents before landing back where it started in a series of 12 legs, the longest at five days over the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. The whole flight was expected to take around 500 hours or just over 20 days, paced over 5 months. Unfortunately, the flight over the Pacific caused irreparable damage to the batteries by over-heating. New batteries means more testing had to be carried out before it could continue on its flight, which started again in April 2016 and landed successfully back in Abu Dhabi in July 2016. It holds multiple World Records, one…

Solar Impulse 2 can take flight without fuel

The amazing Martin Jetpack can fly for 30 minutes

Ever since they first made an appearance in science fiction films, real jetpacks have been promised by a number of different companies and inventors around the world. With its latest prototype, the Martin Aircraft Company believes it has mastered this long anticipated personal aircraft. Despite the name, it isn’t actually powered by a jet engine. Instead, this contraption relies on a 200 horsepower, V4 engine, fuelled by a mix of regular petrol and two stroke oil – much like old mopeds. This powers two carbon fibre fan ducts, one fitted to either side of the jetpack. Air is drawn in from above and accelerated using the fan’s rotors, creating enough downforce to propel a payload of up to 120 kilograms to a height of around 900 metres. The aircraft is…

The amazing Martin Jetpack can fly for 30 minutes

The Air Wheel can travel up to 45km without being charged

The brand new AirWheel – a selfbalancing unicycle – could really liven up your daily commute. By simply leaning in the desired direction, you will be transported to wherever you want to go with the minimum of fuss. The AirWheel incorporates a fastcharging battery, like the ones used in the latest eco-friendly cars, and cuttingedge gyro technology that helps maintain its self-standing orientation. On the most advanced model, a single charge will last for up to 45 kilometres (28 miles) and when the battery is spent it will gently lean back rather than cutting out sharply. Better still, when you go downhill or slow down, the battery will start to regenerate some of its lost juice. Waterproof and made of a comfortable elastic silicone, the AirWheel has been ideally designed…

The Air Wheel can travel up to 45km without being charged

In the future cars will have force fields

The intermittent windscreen wiper system has undergone much refinement since its first appearance in a 1970 Citroën SM. Although it may seem simple to flick a switch and turn on your wipers manually, automatic wipers have the advantage of reducing distraction and improving visibility. A popular automatic system uses invisible infrared light which is projected across the windscreen and reflected back toward an array of sensors. When rain hits the windscreen, the water droplets refract the light so less of it bounces back toward the sensors. The sensor, typically located on the back of your rearview mirror, detects these changes in the amount of light received. Software will then determine the required wiper speed depending on how much light is refracted by the water. McLaren has reportedly been developing…

In the future cars will have force fields

An Audi RS7 can go faster without a driver

It’s the age-old debate: is technology better than the talents of humans? In the automotive world, this argument is fast rearing to a head, with driverless cars now being fully tested on public roads around the world. However, while driverless cars are primarily aiming to be safer than those piloted by a human being, German manufacturer Audi wanted to find out if they are faster, too. The answer to this is the Audi RS7 driverless car prototype, a pumped-up sports car that’s been specially adapted with driverless technology. The RS7 driverless concept works in much the same way as a conventional driverless car currently being developed by other manufacturers, including Toyota and Google. As well as an advanced GPS system with pinpoint accuracy, cameras are placed around the vehicle that…

An Audi RS7 can go faster without a driver

Smart helmets can predict accidents

Cyclists have long worn helmets to protect their head in the event of a collision. Now though, Swedish automotive manufacturer Volvo has created a pioneering new smart helmet that not only protects the cyclist, but also warns them of potential accidents. The helmet is part of a two-way system where both cyclists and drivers continuously upload their location to a cloud system. The system can then warn the respective parties as to the proximity or direction of oncoming objects that interferes with their own location and trajectory. For cars, these warnings are conveyed via warning lights on a heads-up display system in front of the driver on their windshield, which is particularly useful for when a cyclist is in a vehicle’s blind spot. For cyclists, these warning lights are…

Smart helmets can predict accidents

Emergency vehicle lights don’t flash

Fixed to the top of service vehicles, flashing blue lights are deployed in the event of an emergency. Their bright flashes grab the attention of other road users from a distance, allowing them to take evasive steps in good time to make sure the emergency vehicle can pass through safely and quickly, even in heavy traffic, which is crucial when responding to an emergency call. Although brighter, more efficient blue LED lights are now commonplace on police cars, ambulances and fire engines, the old-fashioned method of using a see through unit with a single light bulb inside has long been a trusted ally of the emergency services – and its magic is in the illusion it creates. Of course, bulbs can’t keep flashing on and off for long periods or…

Emergency vehicle lights don’t flash

Adhesive glove s make it possible to climb walls

Being able to scale skyscrapers like everyone’s favourite web-slinging hero would make your morning commute more fun, but the secret to harnessing this power comes from geckos rather than spiders. Students at Stanford University have created special dry adhesive gloves that imitate the microscopic hairs found on a gecko’s feet, enabling humans to implement the same scientific sticking principle they do. However, a gecko only weighs a few grams, so they had to come up with a clever solution to allow for the extra weight. This came in the form of special springs, which help to spread weight evenly across the gloves, providing sufficient adhesion to support up to 91 kilograms (200 pounds). Humans don’t have the incredible upper-body strength of geckos, though, so a bit of extra help…

Adhesive glove s make it possible to climb walls

Ashes can be turned into diamonds

Knowing how to commemorate a loved one’s passing is incredibly difficult for us all, but there is now a wide range of alternatives to traditional burial or cremation. An alternative to sending your relatives’ ashes into orbit, a technique has been devised to convert them into diamonds. A typical 80-kilogram (176-pound) man produces enough ashes to make a 0.2-gram (0.007-ounce) diamond, as our bodies are 18 per cent carbon. To do this, the ashes are heated to over 2,760 degrees Celsius (5,000 degrees Fahrenheit) in a heat-proof crucible. This works to oxidise all of the elements within the ashes, other than the carbon. The carbon is then heated for a number of weeks to turn it into graphite, which is then pressed with a metal catalyst and a diamond-seed…

Ashes can be turned into diamonds

Nanotechnology can make your phone water resistant

Accidentally spilling a glass of water over your phone can cause irreversible damage to the device. Of course, you could attach a waterproof case to make sure it is fully protected, but these often add a lot of bulk to your otherwise slim and sleek phone. However, now you can simply spray on an invisible water-resistant coating that is 1,000 times thinner than a human hair. Splash spray uses nanotechnology to create a small barrier of air around the phone to repel water molecules away from the surface and prevent them from getting inside. All you have to do is spray the openings and buttons on your phone and repeat the process three times, then spray a microfibre cloth and use it to buff the front, back and sides…

Nanotechnology can make your phone water resistant

There is a camera that takes photos first and focuses later

Taking a photo only to discover your main subject is out of focus is a common and frustrating problem. It’s okay if you can simply take the photo again, but what you don’t notice the issue until you get home? If you own a Lytro camera, you’ll never experience this heartache again. Clever light field technology means you can refocus your photos – and even change the perspective – after you’ve taken them. It does this by using a microlens array and a special light field sensor to determine from which direction rays of light enter the camera. This allows it to record a multidimensional light field, which is passed through special software. Complex algorithms are then able to simulate what the image would look like if you had…

There is a camera that takes photos first and focuses later

Siri can be programmed to know who is in your family

Siri won’t automatically know who you are. It’s clever, but it’s not that clever. You have to tell it who you are first, but you only need to do this once, and it stores the details. Go into Settings and then select Siri from the list. Scroll down to My Info and then enter your details. When you next talk to Siri, it should address you by name. It also uses your personal information to tailor answers to your circumstances. For example, if you ask what the weather is like, it will give you the local forecast.…

Siri can be programmed to know who is in your family

QWERTY is more efficient to type with

That’s because it’s less efficient. An alphabetical keyboard would put A and E on the left and middle of the top row, and T on the left of the bottom row. These are the most uncomfortable places for touch typists to reach, for some of the most common letters in English. The alphabet is a random sequence of letters and there’s no reason to suppose it has an advantage for keyboards. There are patterns that are theoretically more efficient than QWERTY. These layouts never took off, but alphabetic order is demonstrably worse than QWERTY.…

QWERTY is more efficient to type with

Water creates super-strong superglue bonds

The compound responsible for superglue’s characteristic sticky strength is called cyanoacrylate, which is an example of an acrylic resin. As soon as it is placed on a surface it cures (forms its strongest bond) in an almost instantaneous reaction, requiring only the presence of the hydroxyl ions found in water for this to happen. Nearly all surfaces we encounter have trace amounts of water, as it is present in the air we breathe. This process is an example of anionic polymerisation; the cyanoacrylate molecules link together in a mesh when they come into contact with water, creating a super-strong bond. This differs from the way white glues bond which is by solvent evaporation. Other than sticking two materials together, superglue can be employed in a variety of other settings.…

Water creates super-strong superglue bonds

Stephen Hawking’s wheelchair is controlled with one button

CHAIR OF PHYSICS Stephen Hawking was diagnosed with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) when he was 21. ALS is a form of motor neurone disease, which results in the progressive death of the nerves that control the muscles. Most sufferers die within five years, but fortunately for physics, and for Professor Hawking himself, his disease has progressed extremely slowly. Even so, at the age of 73, Hawking has just a small amount of motor function left, mainly in the muscles of his face. His link to the world is provided by the computer technology built into his wheelchair. Professor Hawking controls all the functions of his tablet PC using just a single switch – imagine operating your PC using nothing but the spacebar. Hawking’s PC uses a special interface called…

Stephen Hawking’s wheelchair is controlled with one button

You can listen to music through your skull

One major flaw with regular headphones is that you can’t hear anything but the music being blasted into your ears. While this might be a blessing when sitting on a crowded train or bus, it also means that you won’t hear a car come speeding towards you if you step into the road. Bone conduction offers a clever solution, sending the music straight to your inner ear so your outer ear remains free to pick up sounds from your surroundings. The futuristic looking Batband is a device that uses this bone conducting technology. Its spring steel frame grips around the back of your head and can be paired with your smartphone or music player via Bluetooth. When you play music, three transducers – two on the sides of your head…

You can listen to music through your skull

You can keep tabs on your pets from work

Approximately 40 per cent of UK households have pets, and with more of us leading busy lifestyles, it’s not always possible to give our animal pals as much attention as we, and they, would like. Thanks to technology, we can keep an eye on our pets and make sure they’re entertained. From automatic ball launchers to Wi-fitreat dispensers, there are many gadgets on the market to keep our pets happy and healthy. Gadgets that feature internet access via Wi-fior mobile networks provide owners with the ability to check in on and interact with their pets via phone. WHISTLE ACTIVITY MONITOR A fitness tracker for your dog, Whistle helps keep track of your pet’s activity levels and health. Attaching the small disc to your dog’s collar enables you to monitor their…

You can keep tabs on your pets from work

The Wimbledon roof spans 5,200 square metres

Tennis is a sport that requires good weather, so it’s surprising that one of its premier competitions has been held in rainy England since 1877. So after 132 years, a roof was built on Wimbledon’s Centre Court for the 2009 Championships. The primary function is to keep water off of Centre Court so games can continue when a downpour begins, but it also means games can continue after dark. The roof spans 5,200 square metres (56,000 square feet) and is made up of a membrane held up by ten steel trusses, each weighing around 70 tons. It only takes around eight minutes to close but the lights and air management system take up to half an hour to get working. The roof cuts out 60 per cent of the natural…

The Wimbledon roof spans 5,200 square metres

New fighter pilot helmets offer goggleless nightvision

Fighter aircraft usually have displays built into the windscreen so the pilot can see the information coming from their instruments (speed, altitude, warnings and such) without needing to look down. This might seem like a small thing, but if you are in the midst of a dogfight, taking your eyes off your adversary even for a second could be deadly. Rather than using a projector to shine the data onto the windscreen, though, the new Striker II has incorporated the display into the helmet. A tiny projector shines the data onto the inside of the helmet’s visor – kind of like the display inside the Iron Man suit – directly in front of the pilot’s eyes. Not only does this mean the instrument information is always in view but…

New fighter pilot helmets offer goggleless nightvision

Data can be sent using light waves (Li-Fi)

Li-fiis like Wi-fiexcept it uses visible light to send and receive data, instead of radio waves. Light and radio waves are just different frequency ranges in the same electromagnetic spectrum, but using light waves definitely has some big advantages. First, the visible light range of the spectrum is 10,000 times bigger than the entire radio spectrum, and Wi-fiis restricted to a tiny slice of that. So Li-fican fit more data into its signal. Speeds of up to one gigabit per second have been reached in real-world tests, with greater speeds achieved in the lab. Li-fiis cheap too; it uses simple LEDs to broadcast data by flickering them on and off so rapidly that, to the human eye, they don’t even appear to be lit at all. The range of…

Data can be sent using light waves (Li-Fi)

The colour of sunset is determined by the wavelength

The electromagnetic radiation given off by the Sun contains a wide spectrum of wavelengths, and human eyes are sensitive only to certain parts of it. The colours we see depend not only on what our eyes are sensitive to, but also on what has happened to the light before it has reached us and how the Sun is reflecting it, because different colours are associated with different wavelengths according to the spectrum. When the Sun sets, its position in the sky is low compared to where it sits in the middle of the day. Therefore, the light emitted has to take a different path. Its longer journey through the atmosphere means the colours with shorter wavelengths, such as blues and greens, are scattered and dispersed by the atmosphere, leaving…

The colour of sunset is determined by the wavelength

Devil’s Tower was formed by cooling magma

Devil’s Tower is a huge rock formation that juts out of the ground in northeastern Wyoming in the United States. It is a 386-metre (1,267-foot)-high chunk of solid rock that forms a striking silhouette against the landscape. This incredible formation is made of a type of rock called phonolite porphyry. This is a kind igneous rock, which means it was formed by cooling of magma that had welled up from deep inside the Earth. These kinds of rocks are usually associated with volcanoes, but it’s not thought a volcano formed Devil’s Tower. Instead, it’s what’s known as an igneous intrusion. This type of formation happens as magma from inside the Earth’s mantle pushes its way upward between existing sedimentary rocks. The magma then cools before it reaches the Earth’s crust…

Devil’s Tower was formed by cooling magma

A male lion’s mane determines its strength

It is believed that the mane evolved to protect a lion’s neck in a fight; however, Peyton West from the University of Minnesota led a trial involving dummy lions and discovered that, actually, it’s not often the neck that is targeted. The real lions attacked the dummies but mainly went for the backside. While it is thought that during evolution the mane served as protection, now the mane acts as a sign of strength. The mane can overheat a lion and makes them stand out to predators, so only the strongest survive with a large mane. Females are attracted to this, and other lions pick fewer fights.…

A male lion’s mane determines its strength

A usual cuppa comes from the Camellia plant

Tea, the hot beverage enjoyed so much in the UK that it has become as quintessentially British as the Queen, begins its life as juicy young leaves on a bush of the Camellia family. The species Camellia sinensis originates from China and the Camellia sinensis assamica variant is the Indian tea variety. Tea bushes are grown in vast crops in hot, humid areas with regular rainfall. China, India, Sri Lanka and Kenya are the top four countries, representing 75 per cent of the world’s tea production. Factors such as climate, altitude and humidity affect the quality and taste of the tea crop – much in the same way as grapes and wine – and their leaves are expertly selected and plucked by hand. Black tea, the kind you’re probably enjoying…

A usual cuppa comes from the Camellia plant

Scuba divers can’t go beyond 15m deep in Jellyfish Lake

“Every day, an epic migration can be witnessed within the lake, as the jellyfish move to the eastern side of the lake in the morning and then back west again in the evening” Found off the coast of Koror, Palau in the Philippine Sea, a rocky island uninhabited by humans is host to a colossal colony of jellyfish. The Ongeim’l Tketau marine lake, more commonly known as Jellyfish Lake, is just one of about five Palauan lakes inhabited by these glutinous beauties. The lake itself is an average of 30 metres (98 feet) deep and is connected to the sea by cracks and fissures in the rock. The unusual chemical parameters of the lake mean it is highly stratified. The uppermost ‘layer’ of water is rich in oxygen, but around…

Scuba divers can’t go beyond 15m deep in Jellyfish Lake

An egg yolk is released from a hen’s ovary every 26 hours

Whether you boil, fry or scramble them, eggs are one of the most versatile ingredients in the kitchen. But have you ever wondered about the ones that don’t make it onto the plate? These little capsules happen to be some of the most wondrous things in the natural world. A brittle shell protects a gloopy inner of the familiar ‘yolk’ and ‘white’. The yolk is released as the chicken ovulates; it can then be fertilised, and continues to travel through the hen’s reproductive tract. The white of the egg is comprised of various different layers of albumin, structural fibres and membrane, which surround the yolk as it travels through. Finally, the eggs are ‘shelled’ and laid by the hen usually 24 hours later. The fertilised yolk contains all of the…

An egg yolk is released from a hen’s ovary every 26 hours

It’s the oil in catnip that makes felines go crazy

There is an oil found in the catnip plant called nepetalactone. Researchers believe that when this oil enters a cat’s nasal tissue, it binds to protein receptors that stimulate sensory neurons. This leads to a response in neurons in a part of the brain known as the olfactory bulb which projects to other brain regions; regions that not only mediate emotional responses to stimuli (causing a behavioural response), but also regulate neuroendocrine responses, making the cat react to an artificial cat pheromone. It doesn’t affect all cats, but many react by rolling around, flipping over, becoming hyperactive and sometimes acting aggressively, before experiencing a come down ten minutes later.…

It’s the oil in catnip that makes felines go crazy

An average cloud weighs 500 tons

If you consider the weight of the water droplets the average cloud contains, it weighs in at around 500 tons. Clouds are made up of tiny droplets of water or ice crystals, suspended in the air. On average, a cumulus-type cloud – the white, fluffy type – has a volume of one cubic kilometre (0.24 cubic miles), containing 0.5 grams (0.018 ounces) of water per cubic metre (35 cubic feet). This adds up to a total of 500 tons, although in reality this can vary significantly based on the size of the cloud. Despite this huge weight, clouds still float because the dryer air below them is denser.…

An average cloud weighs 500 tons

White waves are caused by lots of water droplets

The white foamy surf we see in breaking waves as they come in to shore is actually made up of lots of tiny droplets containing bubbles of air. These air bubbles do not absorb as much light as pure water droplets, so the light that has passed through them is brighter than the surrounding sea. This is what usually gives surf its white appearance. This effect is more noticeable when seas are rough because the churning waves produce more aeration and therefore more bubbles. Pollution or dissolved organic matter in the sea (often produced by the decay of algal blooms) can also create white foam along the shore.…

White waves are caused by lots of water droplets

The largest lizard on Earth can take down a water buffalo

UNDER THE ARMOUR This real-life dragon is far more fascinating than any mythical beast of fiction. These powerful lizards are opportunistic carnivores and eat almost anything they can find, including the young of their own species. There aren’t many kinds of meat that a Komodo dragon will turn its snout up at – with their keen sense of smell they can detect and track down carrion from several kilometres away. The Komodo dragon’s sharp teeth are curved and serrated – perfect for tearing chunks of flesh from its prey. Its killer move is the belly bite, which the Komodo will use to bring down larger victims like water buffalo. The bite itself is rarely fatal, allowing the target to evade capture, but victory is short-lived. The dragon knows the damage…

The largest lizard on Earth can take down a water buffalo

Frost flowers grow on frozen lakes

They may look like strange plants or even sea creatures, but these beautiful formations are actually intricate ice sculptures that grow naturally on thin ice. They have been spotted on frozen lakes, ponds and sea ice, but require very specific conditions to form. The air above the surface of the ice must be still, dry and about 20 degrees Celsius (68 degrees Fahrenheit) colder than the temperature of the ice itself. This makes it possible for the surface ice to sublimate, meaning that it changes directly from a solid to a gas, skipping the liquid stage in-between. As this water vapour hits the cold air above the ice, it condenses to form ice crystals that attach to imperfections or cracks on the surface. With little wind, the crystals do…

Frost flowers grow on frozen lakes

Dogs act cute so we love them

Seeing an adorable dog tilt his head is one of the cutest things to witness – it’s as if your furry friend is confused. There are a few theories as to what makes dogs do this. One explanation is that the dog rearranges his stance in order to better hear or see us. When a dog looks at you, their muzzle is blocking half of the view; cocking their head allows them to get a better look, especially at our faces, enabling them to adeptly judge emotional and physical clues from the way we act. Another reason is that Fido knows we squeal with delight and shower him with love when he does it. Dogs learn this quickly and will use it to their advantage.…

Dogs act cute so we love them

Ice crystals cause sundogs

If you’ve ever seen what appear to be three bright Suns lined up neatly on the horizon, then you’ve probably witnessed sundogs. This rare phenomenon occurs when hexagonal ice crystals in the air align to refract sunlight into your eye at a precise angle. This forms a halo of light around the Sun, with two bright patches on either side of it called parhelia, or sundogs. Even rarer are jumping sundogs, which occur when lightning discharge in a thundercloud temporarily changes the electric field above it. This adjusts the orientation of the ice crystals so that they refract the sunlight differently, making the sundogs move around as if they’re jumping.…

Ice crystals cause sundogs

Trees help us fight climate change

Trees are the lungs of our planet. As a key part of the carbon cycle, when trees photosynthesise to make their own food, they take in carbon dioxide and convert it to release oxygen, storing the rest of the carbon that gets decomposed into the soil when the tree dies. When a whole forest does this, the intake of CO2 is huge. With rising CO2 levels in our atmosphere being an important factor in climate change, the work of trees becomes all the more prominent. It’s estimated that our planet’s trees absorb up to 40 per cent of the carbon dioxide created by humans each year. When the trees are cut down, this carbon storage is removed, but so is the tree’s ability to stabilise the earth and…

Trees help us fight climate change

The world’s largest crystals are in Mexico

Two brothers were drilling in the Naica mine in Mexico when they uncovered a geological, hundreds of thousands of years in the making. The Cueva de los Cristales, or Cave of Crystals, is a glittering palace covered in some of the largest crystals anyone has ever seen. Measuring over 11 metres – they have thrived in the extreme conditions of the cave. Temperature is a sweltering 44 degrees Celsius and up to 100 per cent humidity means the air you breathe quickly condenses inside your lungs. Geologists exploring the cave had to don specially designed suits, strewn with ice packs. If they had taken their respirator mask off for more than ten minutes, they would have fallen unconscious. However, what proves deadly for humans are the perfect conditions for growing…

The world’s largest crystals are in Mexico

Other planets have Auroras too

For many years, the auroras seen on our planet were thought to be the souls of the dead moving to the afterlife. An Aurora on Earth is actually caused by the Sun and can be thought of as a form of space weather. Solar winds hit Earth with highly charged particles, but our planet’s magnetic field deflects most of them before they reach the atmosphere. Every so often these winds are boosted by solar flares or coronal mass ejections, which release huge amounts of plasma. When these intense solar winds reach Earth, some of the ionised particles get trapped in the magnetic field. VENUS Similar to Mars, Venus does not possess its own planetary magnetic field, but flashes of light from the planet have been identified as auroras. Scientists…

Other planets have Auroras too

Earth formed over 4.6 billion years ago

A TIMELINE OF EARTH THE KEY EVENTS IN OUR PLANET’S PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE PAST FUTURE HOW LONG HAVE HUMANS BEEN HERE? In the grand scheme of things, a very, very short amount of time. If you could compress Earth’s history into a single year, humans would have only existed for less than half an hour! In that relatively short time, we’ve managed to dominate most of the planet and started exploring other worlds too. But unless we become a multiplanet species in the near future, it’s likely we’re eventually going to go the way of the dinosaurs. A mass extinction event will hit us sooner or later, and many experts think we need to colonise the Moon, Mars and maybe beyond to ensure the survival of our race.…

Earth formed over 4.6 billion years ago

ISS has a mass of 420,000 kilograms

The size of the International Space Station is incomparable to anything else ever launched into space. With a total mass of approximately 420,000 kilograms (925,000 pounds), it resides 400 kilometres (250 miles) above Earth in one of the lowest possible orbits, meaning that it’s visible with the naked eye from the ground. It measures 108.8 metres (357 feet) from end to end. It has a wingspan of 73 metres (240 feet). The 0.4 hectares (one acre) of solar panels produce enough electricity to power the equivalent of 40 homes back on Earth. Living space on the ISS is comparable to a six-bedroom house, and is equipped with a gym, two bathrooms and a 360-degree bay window. At the time of its tenth anniversary back in 2010, the ISS had…

ISS has a mass of 420,000 kilograms

The Sun’s gravity holds the planets in orbit

The planets were set in motion during the formation of our Solar System and are held in orbit by the Sun’s gravity. About 4.6 billion years ago, our Solar System was a huge cloud of dust and gas, rotating as it collapsed. As it spun it flattened out, forming the Sun at its centre and a disc of matter surrounding it. Particles of dust in this disc collided and accumulated to form planets. Without the Sun, these planets would travel off into space in a straight line, but the star’s immense gravity curves their paths into orbits.…

The Sun’s gravity holds the planets in orbit

Astronauts on the ISS are constantly free-falling

International Space Station (ISS) astronauts are not truly weightless as they are still affected by the Earth’s gravitational pull. However, the lack of other forces pushing on the astronauts leads to the perceived sensation of weightlessness, rather than true weightlessness. Down here on planet Earth we experience gravity on a daily basis, as well as opposing contact forces. These forces are exerted through the ground we stand on, and give us a sense of our own weight and mass. The ISS is in orbit around the Earth, meaning that the space station is actually constantly ‘falling’ towards the Earth. It is in this state of perpetual free-fall that the astronauts don’t experience any contact forces, and therefore they end up feeling weightless.…

Astronauts on the ISS are constantly free-falling

Starshades are shaped like petals

Astronomers have a problem when it comes to trying to take images of planets around other stars. It is the same as our Sun. To be able to see planets that are very close to their stars, astronomers need a way of blocking the glare of a star’s light so that we can see the planets in close attendance. The tool for this job is called a starshade. It is new technology, but could be flown on a planet-finding space mission in the not-too-distant future. The idea is to have a kind of shade, measuring 34 metres (112 feet) across and floating in space in formation tens of thousands of kilometres ahead of a space telescope. The petal shape means the edge of the shade is not sharp, which…

Starshades are shaped like petals

We can only see a small part of the spectrum

The different types of wave that can be found racing through space can be arranged together in the electromagnetic spectrum. Because of their characteristics, we’re able to arrange these waves into an order. The low notes of the electromagnetic spectrum, which contains waves with not a great deal of energy, start at radio and turn progressively to higher notes – through to gamma rays, which are extremely energetic. Being called ‘waves’ it’s easy to imagine the components of the spectrum as similar to sound waves. With EM radiation, things are different – they don’t need air to travel. They are the movement of magnetic and electric fields, so they don’t need anything to help them move along. With the advent of a fleet of telescopes in space – such as…

We can only see a small part of the spectrum

There are ants in space

Several hundred ants are currently in orbit on the International Space Station, in an experiment to see how they adapt to microgravity environments. The way ant colonies work is fascinating. They don’t have a central control; no single ant can force another to do something. Instead, they use information gathered locally to assess situations, which means the behaviour of the colony depends on the local cues each ant produces. Colonies send out worker ants to search and assess new areas. This can help them find food, map foreign terrain and identify potential threats. By studying the ways ants assess an alien environment, scientists believe they will be able to develop better search algorithms for robots. They want to create autonomous search robots that do not need a central control,…

There are ants in space

Earth’s atmosphere has seven atmospheric layers

Air pressure decreases exponentially the higher you go. But the temperature doesn’t follow this smooth pattern; it falls and then rises in alternating bands. The ground heats the lowest layer of the atmosphere, called the troposphere, so this layer gets colder the higher up you go. As the air gets colder, the water vapour precipitates and falls as rain or snow, and by the time you reach the top of the troposphere at around eight to 12 kilometres up, the air is almost completely dry. This is the start of the stratosphere, where the temperature starts rising again as a result of a large number of ozone molecules absorbing ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. Once the ozone thins out, you reach the mesosphere and the temperature falls again, down…

Earth’s atmosphere has seven atmospheric layers

The HoloLens will help conduct work in space

With the chance to walk on Mars still many years away, Microsoft and NASA have worked together to provide scientists with the next best thing. Using the Microsoft HoloLens headset, new OnSight software will use data gathered by the Curiosity rover to simulate Mars’ environment, enabling scientists to explore as if they were standing side by side with the rover. Scientists have used pictures to navigate Mars before, by converting them into 3D stereo views. The problem with this had been that scientists struggled to recognise how far away objects were, as depth of vision is very difficult to show. The OnSight system works using holographic computing, which blends a view of the physical world with imagery created by computer, producing a mix of virtual and real surroundings for the…

The HoloLens will help conduct work in space

The smallest thing in the universe is a Planck length

The concept of size breaks down at the tiniest scales, but scientists think the smallest possible size for anything in the universe is the Planck length, about a millionth of a billionth of a billionth of a billionth of a centimetre across! It was developed by Max Plancks. It can be defined via three different fundamental physical constants: the speed of light in a vacuum, the Planck constant, and the gravitational constant.…

The smallest thing in the universe is a Planck length

Galaxies can consume each other

While small galaxies create new stars from gas and dust, their more massive counterparts grow by gobbling up what’s around them. The strong gravitational forces they exert pull on smaller galaxies millions of light years away, sending the two racing towards each other until they merge in a spectacular galactic feast. This can currently be seen happening between the distant Antennae galaxies, which began colliding a few hundred million years ago. However, this galactic cannibalism has also been observed much closer to home. A stream of debris, known as the Sagittarius Stream and extending out from our very own Milky Way, is believed to contain the leftovers of its last meal. The stream contains stars that are still travelling in the direction from which they came, creating a trail of…

Galaxies can consume each other

Vinyl records make music through vibrations

As the vinyl disc spins on the record player, a needle – or stylus – moves along the grooves on its surface. It vibrates as it traces over the thousands of tiny bumps and the music plays. The tech seems simple compared to an iPod or a wireless speaker, yet the process to make one of these vinyl records is quite intricate. Once engineers had perfected the recording in the studio, they would create a master disc. This was made of aluminium and coated with a black lacquer. A machine equipped with an electronic cutting stylus, or needle, would etch the grooves into the lacquer, its path directed by electrical signals from the audio. The finished record was coated with a layer of metal, such as silver or nickel, and…

Vinyl records make music through vibrations

The first film with audible dialogue was The Jazz Singer

Films have long represented a popular form of entertainment, but for much of the early-20th century, they were restricted to the silent format. Soon, however, this would all change. Inspired by Thomas Edison’s phonograph and Lee de Forest’s Audion tube, the Vitaphone was created by Western Electric, and in turn was bought and developed further by Warner Bros. The Vitaphone comprised a film projector rigged up to a record player, with the sound being played over the footage of the film. In turn, the sound was amplified so that it was more audible to the audience, with a projectionist on hand to make sure the footage and sound were in sync. The first sound movie to use the Vitaphone system was Don Juan on 6 August 1926 – although…

The first film with audible dialogue was The Jazz Singer

The ‘Butcher crocodile’ was king before dinosaurs

“As its forearms were so short, it is also suspected the creature walked on two legs, much like a T-rex” When the supercontinent Pangaea was breaking apart, 2.7-metre (nine-foot) tall, sharp-toothed creatures roamed the area that would become North Carolina in North America. Palaeontologists have recently discovered parts of the skeleton belonging to Carnufex carolinensis, an ancestor of today’s crocodiles. Nicknamed the ‘Carolina Butcher’, it is believed to have used its blade-like teeth to slice flesh from its prey, likely to have been armoured reptiles and the early relatives of large mammals. As its forearms were so short, it is also suspected the creature walked on two legs, much like a T-rex.…

The ‘Butcher crocodile’ was king before dinosaurs

The Sainte-Chapelle only took around seven years to build

The Sainte-Chapelle, or ‘Holy Chapel’, was commissioned by King Louis IX of France more than 770 years ago. The reason? To house his most prized possessions – what was believed to be the authentic ‘crown of thorns’ worn by Christ at his crucifixion, and fragments of the Holy Cross. The king did not want these relics to become lost, so he decided to buy them and build an appropriately elaborate church to display them in. It is a truly stunning example of medieval architecture; nothing like this had ever been constructed before in history. The fact it was built between around 1241 and 1248 is even more incredible considering the Notre Dame took more than 200 years to build from 1163. The church walls act essentially as window frames…

The Sainte-Chapelle only took around seven years to build

Corsets were worn 3000 years ago

The corset is infamous for crushing women’s waistlines into an hourglass shape. The garment’s origins date back millennia, with early examples believed to have been worn in ancient Crete 3,000 years ago. The waist-cinching trend peaked in the 19th century as hourglass figures became the focus of fashion. Victorian corsets were made from coutil, a fabric famed for its resistance to stretching. This was reinforced with strips of rigid materials, such as wood, whalebone or even steel to provide structure. Tightlacing was commonplace, which involved someone (usually a servant or lady’s maid) pulling the laces of the wearer’s corset to achieve the smallest waist size possible. Corsets were so fashionable that children were given training versions to prepare them for the torturous ordeal. This, along with women starving themselves to…

Corsets were worn 3000 years ago

Amazonian tribesmen shrunk the skulls of their enemies

Shrunken heads are a somewhat alien concept to modern society, yet it is believed they were still being produced during much of the 20th century. The only recorded examples of head shrinking are in South America by Jivaroan tribes in Peru and Ecuador. Tribesmen shrunk people’s decapitated heads due to their belief of a vengeful spirit, or muisak, inhabiting the body. To stop this spirit and to gain power over the victim’s soul, the hunters removed their enemies’ heads and shrank them. First, the warriors would remove the skin and hair from the skull, and seal the eyes and lips shut with pegs. The head skin would then be boiled for half an hour, shrinking it to around a third its original size. The eyes and lips were then sealed…

Amazonian tribesmen shrunk the skulls of their enemies

Cromwell ordered for the Crown Jewels to be melted

Along with Buckingham Palace, one of the most famous things about the British monarchy is the incredible collection of crowns, orbs, sceptres and precious stones that makes up what’s collectively called the Crown Jewels. Stored in the Jewel House of the Tower of London since the beginning of the 14th century, the collection has been a symbol of the monarchy ever since the coronation of Edward the Confessor in 1042. It was for this reason that many valuable pieces were lost as Lord Protector Oliver Cromwell ordered the Crown Jewels to be melted. As they represented the monarchy’s wealth and power, gold items were melted down and jewels sold. The only items that remained were the Anointing Spoon and three ceremonial swords – the Swords of Temporal Justice, Spiritual Justice…

Cromwell ordered for the Crown Jewels to be melted

HMS Dreadnought kick-started a new era of ship development

As the figurehead of the Royal Navy, HMS Dreadnought kick-started a new era of ship development. Although it wasn’t the first ‘big-gun’ ship in production – that honour is bestowed on Imperial Japan, who unsuccessfully attempted to build the IJN Satsuma in 1904 – its design sent shock waves across the naval world. Built in direct response to German efforts to challenge British supremacy on the sea, HMS Dreadnought was the first truly modern warship, combining a revolutionary armament supply, an electronic rangefinding weapons system and advanced speed technology. Its iconic status is secured despite never sinking another battleship. INFO CREW MEMBERS: 773 LENGTH: 527FT (160.6M) BEAM: 82FT (25M) DRAUGHT: 26FT (7.9M) DISPLACEMENT: 18,420 TONS TOP SURFACE SPEED: 21 KTS (39 KM/H) RANGE: 6,620 NAUTICAL MILES (12,260 KM)…

HMS Dreadnought kick-started a new era of ship development

Social status didn’t dictate whether or not you could become a monk

Medieval monks were men who dedicated their lives to serving God and their local community, and would live most of their lives within the walls of a monastery. Any man could become a monk, no matter what their social status, and some parents would even hand their child over to a monastery to be educated and bought up to perform religious duties. However, an adult actively seeking to become a monk would first have to complete a one-month postulancy period before receiving training as a novice for one year. They would then take their simple vows, and after a further four years of service, take their final, or solemn, vows. These differed depending on which religious order the monk belonged to, but usually included the three Benedictine vows: the vow…

Social status didn’t dictate whether or not you could become a monk

The sharpener is a French invention

Although the exact origins of the pencil are uncertain, its growing popularity demanded a far less timeconsuming and far more precise method of sharpening it than to slash away with a knife. The first attempt came in 1828 from French mathematician Bernard Lassimone, who placed two blades at 90 degree angles on a block of wood, but this method of grinding down the pencil to a point wasn’t any faster than the traditional method. The mechanism we’re familiar with today came in 1847 from another Frenchman, Therry des Estwaux, who invented a cone-shaped device with a single blade that when turned would neatly and evenly shave away at the pencil on all sides. The French may have paved the way, but it was America that made waves. In the…

The sharpener is a French invention

Japanese castles were the most important structure during war

A medieval Japanese castle was not only the geographical centre of a ruler’s territory; it was also their most important structure. The population relied on the castle to defend them when war began; during times of peace they would either work to maintain the castle, grow food for its army or fight for it in distant campaigns. Extremely strict rules were enforced on the locals; if a man was away fighting a campaign, his wife would be forced to make repairs to the castle if it was damaged by the weather. The daimyo’s (ruler’s) needs were always the priority. If a single person failed to complete their task, a punishment would be imposed on the entire company. When war began, the daily lives of both the garrison and the…

Japanese castles were the most important structure during war

The Pantheon has elements of Greek design

You may have heard of the Roman Emperor Hadrian – he has a wall named after him in Northern England – but his most famous and influential project is the Pantheon. Nestled in the heart of Ancient Rome, it is the largest unreinforced concrete dome in the world. It was completed in around 125 CE after the original was burnt to a cinder. The Pantheon served as both a temple to the gods and also as a place where the emperor could make public appearances. The front of the structure is Greek in style and is not too different from many of the buildings in Ancient Athens in its pomp. The remainder is a classical Roman style and contains an 8.8-metre (29-foot) oculus in the dome. While the Greek columns…

The Pantheon has elements of Greek design

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