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100 Articles

Why do fish have scales?

Thriving underwater requires some excellent morphological adaptations. One key attribute are scales: strong and durable plates that allow for fluid movement and protection from parasites, scrapes and predators. There are many types of scale, depending on the fish’s evolutionary history. For instance, sharks and rays have placoid scales, while ganoid scales are present on sturgeons and paddlefish. The properties of each scale type are suited to the fish’s lifestyle and habitat. The scales all grow in the same direction, tapering towards the tail to make the fish streamlined. Fish with larger, heavier scales such as the Amazonian arapaima gain more protection but are often more restricted in their movement, whereas species such as eels have much smaller and sometimes microscopic scales that give more flexibility, but at the loss of an…

Why do fish have scales?

What is the life cycle of a frog?

The cycle begins when frogs come together to mate. The male holds the female in a position known as amplexus and fertilises her eggs as they are laid. A female frog can lay a clutch of around 3,000 to 6,000 eggs. Within each jelly-like sphere is a black dot – the developing tadpole. The embryos feed off the surrounding jelly as they grow, and then once they have developed rudimentary gills and a tail after about a week or a month (depending on the species), tadpoles hatch. The hatchlings feed on the rest of the frogspawn jelly mass, as well as any algae that has grown on it. Throughout the next few weeks the tadpoles undergo a fast metamorphosis. First their external gills disappear, replaced by internal gills, which in turn are…

What is the life cycle of a frog?

How does a venus flytrap work?

The carnivorous Venus flytrap sports a menacing-looking mechanism. The spiked, collapsible leaf is laced with drops of sweet nectar to lure in its prey. When a bug lands, it touches the sensitive trigger hairs on the Venus flytrap’s leaves. According to the latest theory, touching one hair does nothing, but touching two causes the trap to snap closed. When the fly struggles, it’s likely to trigger three hairs, which readies the plant’s cells for digestion, and touching five hairs starts the release of digestive enzymes. The plant can even adjust the amount of digestive fluid produced, depending on how large the prey is. When an insect lands on the trap and triggers the hairs, this tension is released and the leaves close in a fraction of a second. The large guard hairs…

How does a venus flytrap work?

What are killer plants?

Drosera There are over 100 species of drosera, which are commonly known as ‘sundews’ as they appear to be constantly covered in dew. These tiny droplets are actually sticky enzymes that trap and start to digest any prey as soon as it lands on the plants’ leaves. Pinguicula This plant catches prey using sticky leaves. The tacky substance is actually full of digestive enzymes, which break down the insects once they become trapped. When winter arrives, some species of pinguicula become quite dormant and cease their carnivorous activities. Nepenthes These plants lure insects, sometimes even rats, into their cup-like pitchers with an attractive scent. Once trapped, the prey drowns in the liquid within the pitcher and is broken down by digestive juices, allowing the plant to absorb the vital nutrients it needs to survive. Sarracenia Like Nepenthes,…

What are killer plants?

What is soil made of?

In its simplest form, soil is a gritty mixture of ground-up minerals and decaying organic matter, such as leaf litter from the forest canopy. These raw ingredients are then all completely mixed and churned together by the bugs and worms that live within. The broken-up rocks that make up soil can come from the bedrock that lies deep below, or from other sources, where rocks, rubble and more soil is transported by forces such as rivers or glaciers. There are six major types of soil, each with different mineral quantities and qualities. Clay soils are dense but high in nutrients, sandy soils are light, dry and relatively acidic, while silt soils are very fertile and hold plenty of moisture. Loam soils contain a balance of clay, sandy and silt soil types,…

What is soil made of?

How do Stalagmites and stalactites form?

Struggling to tell the difference between these two formations? When you see the letter ‘c’ in stalactites, think ‘ceiling’, as they hang from the roofs of caves. And when you see the ‘g’ in stalagmites, think ‘ground’, as they rise from the floor like inverted icicles. Both structures are known as speleothems, and are formed over thousands of years, as water trickles through the cave and minerals are deposited layer upon layer. Stalactites Steady drops of water build these structures downwards Stalagmites Steady drops of water build these structures downwards…

How do Stalagmites and stalactites form?

What is Canada’s Spotted Lake?

Near the town of Osoyoos, in Canada’s British Columbia, lies a lake covered in large, round patches that look as if they have been drawn on by hand. This amazing natural phenomenon appears every summer when scorching temperatures cause the shallow water of the lake to evaporate. Covering an area of around 16 hectares, the patches that give Spotted Lake its name are actually pools of rich minerals, including calcium, sodium sulphates and magnesium sulphate, as well as traces of silver and titanium. Hues of green and blue decorate the landscape, and throughout the summer the spots change colour and shape as the minerals adapt to further evaporation. When the fresh water disappears, the bed of the lake is exposed, providing natural walkways through the mineral-rich pools. However, walking through the Spotted…

What is Canada’s Spotted Lake?

Why are the tropics hotter than the equator?

The equator is the latitude that falls at the point on Earth that is an equal distance from the North Pole and the South Pole, making it zero degrees latitude. The tropics surround the equator; the Tropic of Cancer is north of the equator, whereas the Tropic of Capricorn lies to the south. Sunlight hitting the equator generates rising air currents, contributing to cloud cover and thunderstorms which reduce the air temperature by several degrees. At the subtropics, around 20° to 40° above and below the equator, the atmosphere is more stable, so there is little cloud cover. This creates hotter and drier climates than those experienced at the equator.…

Why are the tropics hotter than the equator?

What is the life cycle of a pine tree?

Vast forests of pine trees can be found in many different regions, from the snowy mountains of North America to the open plains of Europe. These hardy evergreen trees can grow in environments that many others can’t, favouring acidic or sandy soils and rocky regions at high altitudes. When exposed to plenty of sunlight, pines can grow up to a towering 80 metres (262 feet) and live for hundreds of years. One bristlecone pine in California is thought to be 5,000 years old, making it one of the oldest trees in the world, but most are cut down long before they reach this ripe old age. Although pines are native to temperate regions in the Northern Hemisphere, some species have been introduced to southern continents as a valuable source of timber, an…

What is the life cycle of a pine tree?

Do bumblebees make honey?

The bumblebee is bigger, rounder and fuzzier than the wasplike honeybee. Both bee types are crucial in the pollination of plants and crops and they both gather nectar to produce honey. However, the substance made by honeybees is produced in large volumes via a rather long-winded method, whereas bumblebees produce a more simplified ‘honey’ in small quantities. This is actually nectar that the queen bumblebee deposits into wax pots. She uses this to provide food for herself and her young. It is honey in the sense that it’s produced by bumblebees from nectar, but it probably won’t taste that good on your toast!…

Do bumblebees make honey?

What are woodlice?

The next time you move something in the garden and see a woodlouse scuttling out from underneath, remember that these little guys are in fact isopod crustaceans! They’re more closely related to crabs and lobsters than ants and spiders. Although they’re landlubbers, one trait woodlice share with their aquatic cousins is that they use gills to breathe. They like to live in moist, dark places where there’s plenty of decaying material to eat. Their bodies are made up of armoured segments of an exoskeleton that allow them to roll up into balls when threatened (hence the nickname ‘pill bug’). As they grow, woodlice need to shed their skin. This happens in two separate stages; the back sheds first, followed by the front, which is why a woodlouse may sport two different…

What are woodlice?

Do penguins get cold feet?

Yes. Penguins do actually get cold get cold feet, however unlike humans, they are still able to continue functioning due to the way their feet are operated. The tendons that are attached to their ankle and toe bones pass through the muscles that are in the warmer parts of their bodies. Though their feet may become cold, the muscles that operate them are still at a normal body temperature. When the external temperature drops significantly, feathers and the fat layer of the body automatically start to protect the feet, which are not allowed to go below freezing. The penguins blood flow also automatically adjusts to ensure that this doesn’t happen and the penguin is able to continue functioning.…

Do penguins get cold feet?

Why do chickens have combs?

Chicken combs actually help keep the birds cool. Chickens can’t sweat, so when they overheat, blood rushes into the cooler combs on the tops of their heads. Combs are also a good indicator of a chicken’s health; a bright red comb is normal, while a pale or darker comb may mean illness. Comb colour, shape and size vary by breed, but males have larger combs than females. They also play a part in mating; a healthy comb is more attractive and signals that a chicken is ready to mate.…

Why do chickens have combs?

How do birds know how to migrate?

Some birds migrate more than 70,000 kilometres to escape the cold weather and find more food. Scientists believe there are several methods for migrating. The one most similar to human navigation relies on looking for landscape features, such as coastlines and mountains. A step up from this is to use the position of the Sun and stars, which many birds do. Some are able to use the Earth’s magnetic field to migrate, using a part of their brains that acts like an internal compass. Most birds know when to migrate based on the length of the day as well as the temperature. Not all migration is innate, though – some birds have to be taught by their parents or by humans if raised in captivity.…

How do birds know how to migrate?

Why is bird poo white?

Most animals make brown poo, but birds are an exception. Instead of having a separate anus for solid waste and a urethra for liquid waste, most birds have a single opening called a cloaca. It’s a multipurpose orifice used to excrete waste, lay eggs, and procreate. Birds release urine in the form of uric acid, and it’s processed in a way to keep liquid loss to a minimum – hence the white splatter instead of yellow. Often you’ll notice a dark blob in the centre; that’s the solid waste, or poo.…

Why is bird poo white?

Why are cats afraid of water?

The top layer of cat fur is relatively water resistant, so a light rain shower won’t bother it too much. But when a cat gets soaked, its fur tends to become waterlogged. This not only makes the cat sluggish, but it also makes it difficult for the cat to return to a dry, warm state quickly. However, another theory suggests the so-called fear comes from when owners used to shield their cats from the rain in the earliest periods of domestication.…

Why are cats afraid of water?

How do bats sleep upside down without falling?

Bats’ legs are rotated 180 degrees so their knees appear backwards to us, and special tendons in their toes stay flexed so that they don’t have to use up any energy to hang on – they only need to let go to fly. In fact, those tendons are so strong that bats continue to hang after they die. As bats are generally very small, hanging upside down doesn’t affect their blood flow the way it does ours. They don’t get dizzy, and their ability to hang upside down means that bats can roost in places no other animal can.…

How do bats sleep upside down without falling?

What is the life cycle of an Oyster?

Oysters are amazing bivalve molluscs – sea creatures related to slugs and snails that live in hard, hinged shells. Considered a culinary delicacy and aphrodisiac, oysters live naturally in large colonies, called beds or reefs, throughout the world’s oceans, as well as being farmed commercially. They feed by filtering plankton from the water column, and are considered to be ‘ocean cleaners’ due to their ability to filter gallons of water over their gills every day. Capable of living up to 20 years, these critters also have an incredible life cycle. Oysters take cues from the environment in order to gauge the right time to spawn, but it usually takes place in the spring. When the temperature is at an optimum value (this varies depending on the oyster’s specific location), the male…

What is the life cycle of an Oyster?

Why do oysters make pearls?

An oyster is a mollusc, and therefore has a hard outer wall known as a mantle, which covers and protects certain organs. When an intruder – such as a grain of sand – enters an oyster’s shell and lodges itself between the shell and the mantle, it irritates the oyster, causing it to promptly cover the foreign body with a mineral substance that it secretes from its shell, called nacre – also known as mother of pearl. The oyster coats it with more and more nacre until it forms a pearl. The shiny spheres are actually therefore the product of an immune response. Pearl ‘farmers’ can trigger the response by inserting a grain of sand into the shell.…

Why do oysters make pearls?

How does GPS work?

Right now, there are 31 satellites circling Earth in what is known as the Global Positioning System (GPS) Constellation, feeding back information to millions of GPS devices. Whether you’re searching for nearby car parks on your sat nav or tracking down a lost pet, the technology works in the same way. A GPS receiver in your pet tracker locates at least three of these satellites to calculate exactly where on the planet it is. To do this, the receiver intercepts signals from the satellites and calculates how long it took them to arrive. Because the signals always travel at the speed of light, it is even possible to work out the distances between each of the satellites and your furry friend. The exact position of the receiver can be pinpointed via a…

How does GPS work?

What is a cyborg plant?

If you struggle to keep your houseplants alive, then the idea of a shrub that can alert you when it needs watering would certainly be appealing. Thanks to researchers in Sweden, that idea is much closer to becoming reality. The team from Linköping University has created the very first electronic plant, which they say opens up the possibility of being able to read and regulate plant growth by measuring the concentration of their various molecules, as well as making use of the energy they produce through photosynthesis in a fuel cell. To create their cyborg rose bush, the researchers used a synthetic polymer called PEDOT-S, which was drawn up through the plant’s stem by capillary action – the same process plants use to absorb water. Once inside this channel, the polymer converted…

What is a cyborg plant?

How do seabed mining robots work?

Spewing hot, chemical-rich fluids from beneath the seafloor, hydrothermal vents are a valuable source of minerals, including copper, nickel, silver and gold. However, as they lie hundreds of metres below the ocean surface, getting at these sought-after deposits is a tricky business. This is why Toronto-based mining company Nautilus Minerals is planning to deploy a team of robots, or Seafloor Production Tools, to do all the hard work for them. First, the Auxiliary Cutter will carve benches into the seafloor’s rough terrain so the other machines have a flat area to work on. The Bulk Cutter will then slice away material from the seabed using spiked rotating drums, leaving it for a Collecting Machine to draw in as seawater slurry. This machine will push the slurry of crushed rock and water…

How do seabed mining robots work?

How do Pinball machines work?

Today’s pinball machines are much flashier and more sophisticated than their ancestors, but they all retain the same basics of gameplay. The object of the game is to keep the ball from going down the drain, while scoring as many points as possible. To launch the ball into the playfield, the player pulls back a spring-loaded plunger and releases. The tension of the spring can be manipulated based on how much the plunger is pulled, which is useful for aiming at specific targets. The playfield comprises one or more sets of flippers on each side, the only part of the game that the player can control once the ball is launched. Numerous other features that can affect the ball include kickers, slingshots, switches, spinners, bumpers, ramps, and targets. The backbox, or back…

How do Pinball machines work?

What is inside a loud speaker?

In their simplest form, speakers use an electromagnet to move a cone-shaped membrane that vibrates to make noise. Inside the speaker, the mobile electromagnet is placed in front of a fixed, normal magnet. As electricity passes through the coil of the electromagnet, the direction of the magnetic field rapidly changes. This causes the electromagnet to continually be repelled by and attracted to the normal magnet, moving the coneshaped membrane back and forth. The membrane pushes and pulls the surrounding air molecules, creating waves of sound that reach your ears. The pitch of the sound is governed by the frequency of the vibrations, while the volume is controlled by the amplitude, or height, of the sound waves. Some types of speakers use multiple cones of various sizes to replicate the different frequencies…

What is inside a loud speaker?

How does surround sound work?

There are various different surround sound systems, but they all rely on having a number of speakers surrounding the listener. For example, in a 5.1 surround sound system commonly found in home cinema, there is a centre speaker, including a subwoofer for bass, two stereo speakers in front and another pair of surround sound speakers behind the listener. A film soundtrack has components for each speaker encoded, so when it is played, the various sounds come from different parts of the room. The trick to make it seem like someone is walking up behind you is simply to play the sound from the speaker in that direction.…

How does surround sound work?

What are noise-cancelling headphones?

Noise-cancelling headphones can reduce ambient sound around you. Active noise-cancelling headphones use special materials, but go one step further and create their own sound waves too. Inside the earpiece is a small microphone that detects ambient sound and feeds it to a digital processor, which analyses the sound wave’s composition. It then creates a sound wave opposite of the one it analysed. This ‘anti-sound’ wave has the same sized peaks and troughs as the background noise, but they are inverted. These anti-sound waves are then played back from a small speaker in the ear cup, actively blocking the ambient sound waves through a phenomenon known as destructive interference. When the incoming sound wave is at a peak, the anti-sound wave is at a trough, and the sum of these two waves…

What are noise-cancelling headphones?

How do multicopters take off?

Drones come in all shapes and sizes, from the mammoth machines used by the military, to the toys you fly in your back garden. However, while they are all operated remotely, the methods they use to get into the air can differ greatly. Those that take off like normal airplanes use engines or vertical propellers to create thrust, propelling them forwards and causing air to flow rapidly over the wings. The curved shape of the wings then deflect air, creating a difference in pressure above and below. As the air pressure below the wing is higher, this generates lift to push the drone upwards. VTOL (Vertical Take Off and Landing) drones however, don’t need a runway for take-off. They use engines or horizontal propellers to direct thrust downwards, thereby creating lift that…

How do multicopters take off?

What is drone racing?

Swooping through the air at 130 kilometres per hour, flying through narrow hallways and veering around tight corners, this isn’t your average quadcopter flight. In the world of professional drone racing, pilots’ skills are always pushed to the limits as they manoeuvre their flying machines around some of the toughest obstacle courses on Earth. One of the biggest tournaments of this kind is the Drone Racing League (DRL), a global competition that sees the world’s top drone pilots compete for prize money and, more importantly, world champion status. This is essentially a Formula 1 competition for drones and it features a series of races held in enormous sports stadiums and derelict buildings around the world. All of the competing pilots fly the same model of drone, the DRL Racer 2, in…

What is drone racing?

Why do computers get hot as you use them?

All of the electronic components inside your computer have electrical resistance. This means that some of the electric energy that flows through the computer gets dissipated as heat energy as current passes through the electronics, just like the heating element in an electric fire or cooker. Moving parts and motors, such as discs spinning inside hard drives, can also generate heat. The faster your computer is running then the hotter it will get. However, high temperatures can damage the sensitive electronics in computers, so the heat has to be removed somehow. Even though most desktop and laptop computers have fans and heatsinks to keep the electronics cool, the processor can be hot enough to fry an egg.…

Why do computers get hot as you use them?

How does temperature affect battery power?

Computers work better when they’re cooler, so you’d expect the same to be true for batteries, right? Wrong. The current inside a traditional battery is produced by a chemical reaction that generates electrons. The warmer it is, the more vigorous that reaction – and vice versa when it’s cold. That’s why car batteries tend to fail in winter, and why you might be able to coax them back into life by heating them up. However, there’s a sting in the tail here. Batteries certainly generate more power when they’re warm, but they also have a shorter lifespan – partly because of the extra power, and partly because of the risk of damage to individual cells from overheating. For lead-acid batteries is that increasing the temperature by eight degrees Celsius cuts the…

How does temperature affect battery power?

What are the metals in your phone?

The average smartphone contains up to 62 different metals, some of which are rare and valuable. As much as 15 per cent of the phone’s weight is accounted for by copper, which is used to make the tracks that conduct electricity between components. Copper is used because it has low resistance and is fairly soft. Gold is nearly 600 times more expensive than copper but has slightly higher resistance. It is still favoured for certain connections on a phone circuit board because it doesn’t corrode. It’s harder to solder, because it dissolves into the normal tin-silver-copper solder alloy used in the electronics industry. Gold contacts need to be attached using special indium-tin solders or bonded directly using both heat and ultrasound energy. A typical smartphone only contains about 40 milligrams of the…

What are the metals in your phone?

How do computers detect robots?

When you register at a new website, the line of wavy or distorted text that you have to type in is called a CAPTCHA. This stands for Completely Automated Public Turing test to tell Computers and Humans Apart. Originally reading text against a busy background was hard for bots. But now the best bots can now read CAPTCHAs with 99.8 per cent accuracy, better than humans! Some even ask you to click the images of dogs in a grid of images, or identify whether a basketball, rugby ball or ice cream should go with the picture of a basketball hoop.…

How do computers detect robots?

What happens inside a smoke detector?

There are two main types of smoke detector: optical and ionisation. Optical detectors contain an infrared light beam pointing toward a photocell, generating electricity when light falls on it. When there is no smoke, the light reaches the photocell unobstructed. When smoke enters the detector and blocks the beam of light, so the photocell can no longer produce an electric current, triggering the alarm and alerting people to danger. Ionisation detectors contain a radioactive substance. This element constantly emits alpha particles, which pass between two charged metal plates called electrodes. The alpha particles collide with air molecules and split into positive ions and negative electrons. Charged particles are attracted to opposite electrodes, causing a current to flow. Smoke particles attach to ions, neutralising them. A sensor detects the drop in current…

What happens inside a smoke detector?

What are rubbish islands?

Joyxee Island floats just off the coast of Mexico on top of approximately 100,000 plastic bottles. As the bottles are sealed and kept in darkness beneath the island, they don’t deteriorate in the Sun’s ultraviolet rays, and the roots of mangroves planted above help to hold them all in place. The island is 25 metres in diameter and strong enough to support a two-storey home, complete with a solar-powered waterfall and a wave-powered washing machine. The island is anchored in place by wooden posts driven into the seabed, and is also tethered to the coast by a long rope. How to make a floating island A step-by-step to creating your very own eco-paradise Land reclamation success stories…

What are rubbish islands?

Do we know the science behind a BBQ?

Whether your barbecue is plumbed into a gas tank, or is a more traditional coal or wood-fired burner, there are two key ingredients for a good grilling: heat and smoke. Barbecuing is very different from cooking on a hob or in an oven. On the hob, the heat moves from ring to pan to meat mainly by conduction. The metal pan is in physical contact with the heat source, and the meat is in direct contact with the pan. Alternatively, when meat is cooked in an oven, heat mainly travels by convection. The element heats the air, which circulates around the oven, and around your food. On a barbecue, however, the burgers and sausages are far above the coals, and with the lid off, convection isn’t nearly as important as it is…

Do we know the science behind a BBQ?

Why does coffee spill?

Researchers at the University of California, Santa Barbara, carried out a study in which they recorded volunteers as they carried coffee cups to expose the secret behind the spill. What they found was that it’s all down to a combination of cup size, coffee fluid dynamics, and the way we walk. Fluid sloshing inside a container tends towards a natural frequency, a bit like a liquid pendulum. This varies with the size of the cup and the properties of the liquid, but for coffee in a regular mug, the natural frequency is close to walking rhythm. As you walk along, the liquid starts to sway and little irregularities in your step amplify the effect. The faster you accelerate, the more likely you are to spill. Putting a lid on your cup can…

Why does coffee spill?

Why do teapots drip?

Fluid dynamics researchers at the University of Lyon in France have been hard at work finding out why teapot spouts are so prone to dripping. They found that these post-pour spillages are down to the ‘hydro-capillary’ effect; as you pour the tea, some of the liquid tracks down the outside of the spout. This is influenced by the shape of the spout, how fast the tea is poured, and how water-repellent the teapot is. Metal teapots with straight-edged spouts are much less prone to dripping than their curvy porcelain counterparts.…

Why do teapots drip?

Is the five-second rule real?

Every schoolchild has heard that if you pick food up within five seconds of dropping it, it’s safe to eat, but is this an urban myth? To test the idea, researchers at the Aston University in the UK dropped toast, pasta, biscuits and sweets onto a variety of different floor surfaces, and tested them for the presence of common bacteria at time points between three and 30 seconds. Bacteria do transfer before the magic five seconds is up, but generally the food is still edible. Dropping food onto carpet was better than flinging it at a hard, flat surface like laminate, and dry food fared better than wet.…

Is the five-second rule real?

Why does toast burn?

Bread in its simplest form is made from wheat flour, yeast and water. The flour contains carbohydrates and proteins, and these are the key ingredients of a chemical reaction known as the Maillard reaction. Above around 140 degrees Celsius, the chemical groups called aldehydes in bread start to react with the amino groups found in the wheat proteins. The rate at which your bread turns to toast, and then to charcoal, depends on its composition, and various sugars and amino acids produce different flavour and odour molecules when they undergo the Maillard reaction. In general, the drier the slice, the faster these reactions occur, and the quicker the toast will burn. The taste of toast Complex chemicals are responsible for the distinctive smell and taste of toast 1 Bread Bread contains proteins (made of amino…

Why does toast burn?

What is Junk DNA?

Less than two per cent of the three billion ‘letters’ of the human genome contains proper genes. That leaves an overwhelming majority of our DNA code that has no obvious function – so why does it exist? Most of the human genome is dull and repetitive, packed full of millions of copies of elements called transposons and other repeated sequences. It might be expected that evolution would kick this stuff out, through the process of natural selection. If a stretch of DNA is useful, it sticks around and becomes a permanent part of the genome. But if not... well, it actually sticks around anyway, because evolution is a slow and imperfect process. More recent research actually suggests that this ‘junk’ DNA may not be completely useless. Some researchers actually think that our abundance…

What is Junk DNA?

What is the science behind radioactive dating?

Most chemical elements remain stable over time, but there are radioactive variants of common atoms, and these are unstable. As the years pass, they gradually decay. One of the most well-known is carbon-14, which has two extra neutrons in its nucleus. Atoms of carbon-14 cannot hold on to the extra neutrons forever, and over time they will lose them to form stable, non-radioactive nitrogen-14. This decay happens at a fixed rate, like the ticking of a clock, and is known as a half-life: the time it takes for half the unstable atoms in a given mass to decay. The carbon-14 clock allows scientists to determine the age of fossilised remains of living things. All life on Earth is carbon-based, and when animals and plants are living, they incorporate traces of naturally…

What is the science behind radioactive dating?

How does baking bread work?

Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs show that humans have been baking bread for thousands of years. The first attempts consisted of ground wheat and water that was left to harden in the Sun. It’s possible that one mixture was left longer than usual and the naturally occurring yeasts enabled the dough to ferment. The resulting loaf would have risen, leading the Egyptians on a mission to isolate the yeast so that it could be added to every batch of bread. This key ingredient is just a part of the amazing chemical and biological processes that create a food enjoyed all over the world. Making bread with science A step-by-step guide to harnessing the power of yeast for a light, fluffy texture What is yeast? Discover how yeast makes bread possible It’s strange to think that you are…

How does baking bread work?

Why do baked beans give you wind?

Baked beans are a tasty treat that are high in fibre and therefore extremely good for your digestive system. However, as they make their way through your body, they also produce an unfortunate side effect: flatulence. This bodily function is a result of sugars called oligosaccharides that are contained within the beans. These sugar molecules are too big to be absorbed in our small intestines, and our bodies do not produce the enzyme that can break them down, so they carry on through to the large intestines intact and undigested. Here, they’re met by our gut bacteria, which have no problem breaking them down into something more manageable. As they do this, they produce gasses including hydrogen and methane, which gradually accumulate in your lower intestine and escape through your…

Why do baked beans give you wind?

What happens when you eat too much?

When you’ve just polished off a plate piled high with food, it can sometimes feel like you’re going to explode. Although it is possible for your stomach to rupture after overeating, your gag reflex is likely to kick in long before you actually reach that point. The average human stomach can handle between one and one-and-a-half litres of food before getting the urge to throw it back up, but can stretch to accommodate four times that much before a rupture occurs. Ready to pop How does your stomach cope with a big meal?…

What happens when you eat too much?

What is the biology of hunger?

The feeling is too familiar: a growling in the pit of your stomach that starts around late morning when breakfast is just a memory and lunchtime is still a tiny speck on the horizon. It’s hunger – a feeling that begins with the hormone known as ghrelin. Once your body has finished digesting and using up the energy from your last meal, your blood sugar and insulin levels drop. In response, ghrelin is produced in the gut and travels to the brain, letting it know that sustenance is needed. The brain then commands the release of a second hormone called neuropeptide Y, which stimulates appetite. Once you have eaten, nerves in your stomach sense stretching, letting your brain know you’re full. Cholecystokinin improves digestion by slowing down food being emptied from…

What is the biology of hunger?

What are muscle cramps?

Cramp occurs when your muscles involuntarily contract very quickly and do not relax again straight away. These sudden spasms commonly affect the calves and last just a few seconds, but can persist for 15 agonising minutes or more. Normally, your calf muscles contract to raise your heels and relax to lower them, allowing you to walk, run and jump. However, during a cramp these muscles contract tightly and unexpectedly, leaving you unable to control them until the contraction subsides. The affected muscles will continue to remain tense, tender and painful while they are refusing to relax. Despite being such a common experience, nobody knows exactly what causes these random contractions. It’s thought that excessive strain on the muscles or a restriction in blood supply could be contributing factors, but one of…

What are muscle cramps?

What is the science behind stress?

Corticotropin-releasing hormone, triggers the release of a second chemical called corticotropin. This travels in the bloodstream to the adrenal glands, which sit on top of the kidneys, and signals for them to make the steroid hormone cortisol. Cortisol is also known as the ‘stress hormone’, and it has effects all across the body. It helps to return systems to normal during times of stress, including raising blood sugar, balancing pH and suppressing the immune system. Vasopressin also travels in the blood to the kidneys, but its function is slightly different. It increases the re-uptake of water, decreasing the amount of urine produced and helping the body to hold on to the reserves that it has.…

What is the science behind stress?

Why do my knuckles crack more when it’s cold?

In 2015, researchers at the University of Alberta, Canada showed once and for all that the cracking sound made in finger joints is down to the formation of bubbles. As you pull, the surfaces of the joint come apart and a cavity appears in the fluid between. This makes the noise. To crack your knuckles again, you have to wait for the bubble to disappear. The researchers didn’t look at the effect of climate, but it could be that something about the cold effects the behaviour of the fluid in your joints, helping the bubbles to disperse more rapidly.…

Why do my knuckles crack more when it’s cold?

How do cavities form?

Harmful bacteria inside your mouth feed on the sugars contained within the food you eat, and in the process produce acid that erodes the hard tooth enamel. If left alone, it will group together to form a sticky substance called plaque. As the plaque absorbs minerals in your saliva, it hardens to form tartar, which protects the bacteria so they can continue to erode your teeth and form deep holes known as cavities. As they expose the sensitive inner layers of your tooth, cavities can be very painful.…

How do cavities form?

What are nerve cells?

Nerve cells, or neurones all have some key features in common, but they also have their own specialisms. Many nerve cells can be divided into four categories: pseudo-unipolar, bipolar, multipolar, and pyramidal. These categories are based on the number of extensions that stick out from the cell body. This centre contains the nucleus, which carries the genetics, and houses everything the nerve cell needs to produce the molecules that do its job. The projections link one nerve cell to the next, carrying messages in the form of electrical signals, and passing them on using neurotransmitters. There are two main types of projection. Axons are often long and tube-shaped, and carry messages away from the cell body, while dendrites are short and tapered, and receive signals from other nerve cells.…

What are nerve cells?

What are meteorological satellites?

Weather forecasting isn’t just handy for letting you know if you need an umbrella, it can also help save lives by providing early warning of devastating storms and floods. To be able to accurately predict these events, forecasters need to constantly monitor the Earth’s surface and atmosphere, and they can do this thanks to a vast network of meteorological satellites flying through space. There are two main types: geostationary and polarorbiting satellites, which work together to monitor the planet from every angle. Currently watching North and South America and the Eastern Pacific are the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites, GOES-EAST and GOES-WEST. The current GOES-EAST satellite, GOES-13, is actually set to retire after ten years of service. Its new replacement, GOES-R, will be able to provide 50 times more information, helping…

What are meteorological satellites?

What are constellations?

While we know that the stars are many light years away, and all at different distances, astronomers still put them into groupings called constellations. These are named after the characters, animals and objects they resemble. The constellations help us make sense of the night sky. Without them, it would be a chaotic sprinkling of stars, constellations give astronomers a quick and visual way of getting their bearings in the cosmos. There are 88 official constellations and these provide the catalogue names of the stars. For example, Deneb is the brightest star in the constellation Cygnus, so this is known as Alpha Cygni. The brightest star in Boötes is Arcturus, so it is also called Alpha Boötis. The Andromeda galaxy is in the constellation of Andromeda, so seasoned stargazers will know the rough…

What are constellations?

What is ‘Young Jupiter’?

In a distant solar system 100 light years away, scientists have discovered an exoplanet that seems oddly familiar. 51 Eridani b is a gas giant roughly 11 times wider than Earth, and is similar to our Solar System’s very own Jupiter. However, the new discovery, made using the Gemini Planet Imager, is only 20 million years old – a blink of an eye compared to 4.5-billion-yearold Jupiter! With more tests, scientists could uncover how it came into existence and then that knowledge could be used to understand how Jupiter was formed. Even at 427 degrees Celsius (800 degrees Fahrenheit), this so-called ‘young Jupiter’ is actually relatively cold and small compared to other gas giant exoplanet discoveries. This suggests that rather than material collapsing quickly to form a hot planet, 51 Eridani…

What is ‘Young Jupiter’?

Do other planets have seasons?

Other planets experience seasons, although these typically look nothing like our planet’s. Our seasons are caused by the 23-degree tilt in Earth’s axis of rotation, exposing its hemispheres to different amounts of sunlight. Planets with a very slight tilt, such as Jupiter, have very small variations across the year. At the other extreme, with an 82-degree tilt, Uranus’s hemispheres lean away from the Sun for decades at a time before swapping over. When spring comes after each 20-year winter, huge storms are triggered in its atmosphere. Other planets also experience differences due to the size and shape of their orbits (orbital eccentricity). A shorter orbit, such as Venus’s, results in a much shorter year and shorter seasons. Unlike Earth, which has an almost circular orbit, Mars is ten per cent…

Do other planets have seasons?

Can you blow bubbles in space?

In the vacuum of space, blowing a bubble is impossible. For a start, there is no air to blow into bubbles, but even if you brought your own, it wouldn’t work. To create a bubble, the air pressure inside and outside need to be equal. In space, there is no pressure, so the bubble would burst instantly. However, you could blow bubbles on a spacecraft, and they would actually last longer. On Earth, gravity pulls the soap downwards, causing the top of the bubble to thin out and burst. In zero gravity, the thickness would remain equal, so the bubble wouldn’t pop so easily.…

Can you blow bubbles in space?

How do astronauts float?

ISS astronauts are not truly weightless as they are still in fact affected by the Earth’s gravitational pull, but due to the lack of other forces pushing on them leads to the perceived sensation of complete weightlessness. Down here on planet Earth we experience gravity on a daily basis, as well as opposing contact forces. These forces are exerted through the ground we stand on, and give us a sense of our own weight. The ISS is in orbit around the Earth, meaning that it is actually constantly ‘falling’ towards the Earth. It is in this state of perpetual free-fall that astronauts don’t experience any contact forces, and therefore they end up feeling weightless.…

How do astronauts float?

What is weather like in space?

The Sun, and the vast vacuum of space surrounding it, may seem pretty peaceful to us on Earth, but it is actually alive with violent activity. Although you might not hear about it on television forecasts, it’s the source of a variety of space weather, and there are some very important reasons why we should be aware of it. Throughout its 11-year solar cycle, the big ball of hot plasma at the centre of our Solar System bombards our planet with solar winds. During periods of peak activity, this can disrupt many of the technological systems we rely on for communication, navigation and more. Read on to discover how……

What is weather like in space?

Do astronauts feel alone in space?

Space is vast, empty and lonely. Onboard a ship with just a handful of other human beings for company, journeys to other worlds in our Solar System will test more than just the physical bodies of the astronauts. They will need to be able to cope with extreme isolation. No human being has ever travelled more than 400,171 kilometres from the surface of the Earth, little more than a couple of days away. People have spent months and months on the International Space Station, but home is just below and always in sight – travelling to other planets will be very different. Mars is 225 million kilometres away and will take a crew seven months to get there, and they will only have one another for support, there will be no emergency…

Do astronauts feel alone in space?

How do astronaut train for space?

When an astronaut prepares for a mission to the International Space Station, they must practise the tasks that they’ll be carrying out in space. However, in order to make the training as realistic as possible, the microgravity they’ll encounter outside our planet’s atmosphere needs to be mimicked here on Earth. NASA has an ingenious way of replicating space’s unique environment on our home planet – it has placed a large-scale mockup of the ISS in an enormous swimming pool. The American space agency calls this 12-metre (40-foot) deep pool the Neutral Buoyancy Lab (NBL) and astronauts have been training here since 1996. Astronauts undertake six-to-eight-hour underwater sessions on a daily basis. When it’s time to begin training, a camera diver shadows the astronaut to capture everything that happens, so it can be…

How do astronaut train for space?

What is a pulsar?

When pulsars were discovered in 1967 by Jocelyn Bell, nobody knew what they were. They were so mysterious that the first pulsar was half-jokingly nicknamed ‘LGM-1’, for Little Green Men. Today, however, we know that pulsars have nothing to do with aliens, but come from something just as dramatic. They are the rapidly spinning condensed cores of massive stars that have exploded as supernovae. When a star greater than eight times the mass of our Sun reaches the end of its life, it stops generating energy from fusion power within its core. This causes the core to collapse into an object so dense that electrons and protons merge to form neutrons. The outer layers of the star quickly fall onto this collapsed core before a shock wave blows them back out,…

What is a pulsar?

How far can we send a spacecraft before we lose contact?

How far a space probe can go before communication is lost is limited only by the radio technology we develop. Voyager 1, launched in 1977, is currently over 20 billion kilometres away, but we are still able to exchange information with it using radio signals. On Earth, huge antennae pointed towards the spacecraft amplifies its weak signals. Advances in this technology have allowed us to receive transmissions far longer than expected, and newer spacecrafts with more powerful transmitters could extend this range even further. We will lose contact with Voyager when it runs out of energy in around 2025.…

How far can we send a spacecraft before we lose contact?

What is the interstellar medium?

Even the emptiest voids between the stars contain gas and dust, known as the interstellar medium (ISM). Ninety-nine per cent of the ISM is made up of hydrogen and helium gas, but at an extremely low density. The remaining one per cent is interstellar dust, which consists of extremely small particles of carbon or silicate. These tiny grains are formed in relatively cool and dense environments, such as in the outer atmospheres of red giants. When they are ejected by solar winds, radiation pressure, or in stellar explosions, these grains become scattered across the galaxy. © ESO/M; NASA, Goddard Space Flight Center; NASA/Van Allen probes/Goddard Space Flight Center; NASA/ESA/The Hubble Heritage Team…

What is the interstellar medium?

Why is the Moon slowly moving away from us?

The action of ocean tides is causing the Moon to gradually drift away from Earth. The Moon’s gravitational pull on our planet’s water creates a bulge on the ocean surface on the side of the Earth that is closest. This bulge in turn exerts a gravitational pull on the Moon. As the Earth rotates, the bulge moves forward in relation to the Moon. As a result, the Earth’s rotation slows slightly, giving a little bit of energy to the Moon, pushing it away. Each year, the Moon edges about 3.78 centimetres further away.…

Why is the Moon slowly moving away from us?

How can we see back in time?

If the Sun suddenly vanished, it would take a full eight minutes and 20 seconds for anyone to notice. This is because sunlight does not reach us instantly; it has to travel through space to get here, and that takes time. The Moon is just over 384,000 kilometres away, so it takes a bit more than a second for its reflected light to reach us. Light from the Sun, at 150 million kilometres away, takes over eight minutes, while light from our next closest star, Proxima Centauri travels for four years. When light travels from our neighbouring galaxy, Andromeda, it takes an incredible 2.5 million years to reach us. This effectively means that looking out into space is the equivalent to looking back in time. The Hubble telescope can see light released…

How can we see back in time?

How do spacesuits work?

Spacesuits are an astronaut’s life support system, providing them with oxygen, keeping them warm and protecting them from the vacuum of space. They provide communications with fellow astronauts and mission control, monitor their health and are sealed against the harsh environment outside. One of the most important parts of any space suit is the backpack: the Primary Life Support System, or PLSS. It’s more than just an oxygen pack – it keeps the suit pressurised to prevent hypoxia, removes harmful carbon dioxide and cools the suit by pumping water around it. It also houses medical monitors and the communication equipment. Inside the suit the astronaut wears a skin-tight Liquid Cooling and Ventilation Garment, which removes body heat through perspiration. Oxygen, carbon dioxide and water vapour are also sent back to the…

How do spacesuits work?

What are NASCAR haulers?

Over the years NASCAR has become a huge part of American sporting culture. Founded in 1947, it now sanctions more than 1,200 races across America, Canada, Mexico and Europe. Getting the highly specialised race cars from one race to another presents the teams with a problem. You won’t see a race car being driven on normal roads, and since the NASCAR races are so spread out across America, they have to be transported in a specialised hauler to each race venue. They do more than transport cars; they function as repair shops, restaurants, meeting rooms, viewing platforms and storage facilities. As every racetrack on the calendar is different, each NASCAR team will alter the setup of their cars depending on the conditions. This means that every car has to return to the…

What are NASCAR haulers?

What’s inside Boeing’s 377 Stratocruiser?

Following World War II, cutting-edge military technology was put to commercial use. In the late 1940s, Boeing unveiled the 377 Stratocruiser, an airliner based on the B-29 Superfortress Bomber. The wings had retractable flaps to help minimise drag and allow higher speed, which kept flights as economical as possible. Four 3,500-horsepower piston engines drove the 377’s propellers, helping it reach an altitude of 9,750 metres (32,000 feet). The 377’s engines were quite unreliable, due to their complex, 28-cylinder composition. Although designed to fly with only three working engines, this did not save the plane from catastrophe. Between 1951 and 1970, Stratocruisers suffered 13 hull-loss accidents. This is one of the reasons the 377 was retired commercially in favour of jet aircraft. Post-war air travel See inside Boeing’s first transatlantic commercial plane…

What’s inside Boeing’s 377 Stratocruiser?

What is the future of VTOL aircrafts?

British company Reinhardt Technology Research (RTR) have designed the TU 523, a vertical take-off and landing (VTOL) aircraft, capable of transporting heavy shipping containers without the need for expensive new infrastructure. The craft uses a hybrid electric generator to supply power to a series of electric turbines on demand, which can tilt horizontally and enable vertical take-off and landing. Once in the air, the turbines automatically tilt back again, while the wings generate lift just like on an airplane. RTR has already built a 1:4 scaled model of the TU 523, which will be sent on a 60-day journey from the UK to South Africa. A full-scale version is then to be developed, which can be mass-produced at a capacity of 30 units per month and cost no more than £400,000…

What is the future of VTOL aircrafts?

What is the world’s largest ship?

The largest, most monstrous, hands-down winner in the big ships size class is Maersk’s Triple E design. Offering 16 per cent more container space due to its wider, bulbous bow. The engine is also positioned further back to aid stability and allows for yet more containers to be squeezed in above and below deck. The propellers are larger, and move slower to conserve fuel and reduce emissions. The hull is designed to be completely recyclable, while the ship’s waste heat recovery system captures the heat and pressure from the exhaust and uses it to move turbines. The vessel is so enormous it has to be built in a way that can withstand the force of waves, made from flexible materials that can bend with the movement of the ocean. It’s possible to…

What is the world’s largest ship?

How do GHOST ships work?

Juliet Marine Systems (JMS) Inc have used innovative technology in the design of its demonstration ship called GHOST. This twinhull ship has two wing-like struts attached to the main cabin. Instead of being pushed along, front-mounted propellers on each hull pull GHOST through the water. Whereas a conventional propeller vessel leaves a trail of foam in its wake, GHOST’s unique design redirects the bubbles to surround the twin hulls with pockets of gas. This effect is known as supercavitation, allowing the boat to glide through air rather than water, which JMS claims can reduce drag by a factor of 900. GHOST’s wings can also be repositioned to lift the main cabin above the bumpy waves. This ensures a smooth ride, protecting the crew from impact injuries and sea sickness, also improving…

How do GHOST ships work?

How do wheels work?

Wheels are one of the most important parts of a car, they are the only parts that connect it to the road. Each wheel is connected to an axle, which rotates on power from the engine. As the axle rotates, so does the wheel, providing motion for a vehicle. The brake system, consisting of a brake disc and a calliper on each wheel, stops the car. The brake disc is attached to the wheel, while the calliper acts as a clamp. When you hit the brake pedal, a piston closes the clamp, slowing the brake disc and stopping the wheel from turning, bringing the vehicle to a halt.…

What’s inside your car’s wheel?

What’s inside your car’s wheel?

What are airless tyres?

Michelin’s airless tyre design promises to put an end to frustrating slow punctures and dangerous high-speed blow-outs. Their new ‘Tweel’ is a combined wheel and tyre assembly in a single, tough unit, primarily designed for commercial use in landscaping, agriculture and construction. If successful, the designers hope to implement the technology in other vehicles. Solid, air-free tyres have actually existed for quite a while but as they are incredibly hard, the vehicle bounces when travelling over rough terrain. The Michelin Tweel combats this by compressing when it is being driven on rugged roads. Another advantage is that it’s much more eco-friendly than current air-filled pneumatic tyres, as it is made of a plastic resin that can be repeatedly recycled. This means that these tyres will have very little environmental impact even…

What are airless tyres?

How do road sweepers work?

Mechanised road sweepers are like huge vacuum cleaners that suck up everything from leaves and dirt to paper and cans, leaving the roads behind them squeaky clean. High-pressure water jets break up any caked-in dirt. Rotating ‘gutter brooms’ sweep this dirt, and any other litter, from the edges of the road into the middle. The sweeper then sprays out a fine mist of water, helping to hold the dust down. The vacuum system is connected to a hose that sits under the centre of the sweeper, it sucks up litter from the road into the vehicle’s collection bin. Once it’s in there, the litter is shaken and dried, to break it up into smaller particles, and passed through filters. The dirt is trapped, while the cleaned air is either recycled back into…

How do road sweepers work?

Is there a supersonic jet without the boom?

NASA hope to bring back supersonic passenger air travel by making flights greener, safer and quieter. To achieve this it has announced plans to develop a ‘low boom’ aircraft, which generates a soft thump as it breaks the sound barrier, rather than a disruptive boom. The $20 million contract to design the Quiet Supersonic Technology (QueSST) X-plane has been awarded to Lockheed Martin Aeronautics, and NASA hopes a working prototype will take flight in 2020. To help build this next-generation supersonic jet, NASA has been busy conducting research into sonic booms. It has recently been testing an air data probe that may one day be used to measure the shockwaves generated by supersonic aircraft.…

Is there a supersonic jet without the boom?

How do aerodynamics work?

As a car moves through the air it pushes aside air molecules, which creates a resistant force called drag. The faster a car travels, the greater the drag, meaning the car’s engine has to work even harder to maintain speed. As car speeds have increased, it has become more important for drag to be kept to a minimum – that’s where aerodynamics come into play. Ensuring a car has good aerodynamics means giving it a more chiselled appearance from the front, reducing its surface area that will come into contact with the air. Enhancing the flow of air around a car not only reduces drag, making it more economical, but also allows it to slip through the atmosphere quicker, making it faster. Airflow is also utilised to keep key parts of…

How do aerodynamics work?

What is inside your car’s air con?

It all starts when you press the A/C button on your dashboard. Firstly, a refrigerant gas (usually Puron or Freon) is pumped through a series of tubes by a compressor. The compressor forces the vapour into a high-pressure state, causing its temperature to rise. This hot air passes through a condenser, which uses fans to cool the refrigerant gas into a liquid. The cool liquid is then pumped into a receiver, which removes any moisture or ice crystals that could damage the circuit. Finally, it is pumped into an expansion valve that reduces its overall pressure, allowing it to pass into the evaporator. The refrigerant has a very low boiling point and so becomes a gas again, even at the temperature of the car cabin. Heat from the air drawn in by…

What is inside your car’s air con?

How are torpedoes fired?

Torpedoes can be launched from both ships and submarines, using torpedo tubes lined up along the hull. World War II-era torpedoes were guided towards the target using an internal gyroscope, and their path could be fine-tuned using the rudders. A pendulum inside the torpedo kept it level. Many modern torpedoes are wire guided, so they can be controlled remotely after launch, before the wire is cut off and the internal guidance system takes over. Once the torpedo detects an enemy ship, or makes contact with it, the onboard explosive is detonated to rip a hole in its side and send it sinking without a trace. Load, aim and fire! How to fire a torpedo during battle…

How are torpedoes fired?

How do we get real-time traffic data?

When sat navs first came onto the market they functioned only to get you from one place to another. Modern varieties now offer live traffic data, to keep you aware of developments on the roads as they happen in real time. The bulk of this information is actually provided by the drivers’ journeys as they’re undertaken. A small mobile device, similar to a SIM card, is built into the sat nav, which sends data on the speed it’s travelling at and its precise geographical location back to the manufacturer’s headquarters. Along with this data, live information is gathered from mobile phone networks, radio reports and government organisations, which have access to traffic data through a multitude of cameras and road sensors. These detect the volume and speed of vehicles, using either radar…

How do we get real-time traffic data?

What is countersteering?

When taking a corner, a motorcyclist will momentarily steer in the opposite direction to where they want to go. This is known as countersteering, and is a safer way of turning at high speeds. To turn left, you start by pushing gently on the left-hand grip, which turns the front wheel to the right. This positions the wheels for a right-hand turn but as you are going from a straight direction of travel, this turn is unstable. The friction created between the wheels and the ground causes the bike to tilt the other way. This leans you and the bike to the left, setting it up for a left turn instead. Once you’ve released the pressure on the left-hand grip, the bike will perform a safe, stable, left-hand turn. The amount you…

What is countersteering?

How does the Super Yacht Sub work?

The Super Yacht Sub 3 (SYS3) is a personal submersible, costing a bank-breaking £1.6 million ($2.4 million), that gives three passengers the opportunity to explore 300 metres below the ocean’s surface. Four electric thrusters propel the SYS3. Two mounted at the rear of the sub, while the other two are on the side, allowing movement in any direction. The power comes from a lithium-ion battery, which provides 21.6 kilowatt-hours to the thrusters and onboard operating systems. Enabling the sub to reach a top speed of 2.8 knots (just over five kilometres per hour), both underwater and on the surface. The submarine is steered using a dual-joystick controller featuring a ‘dead man’s switch’, which must be pressed every ten minutes to prevent the sub from returning to the surface. Exploring the oceans See the features…

How does the Super Yacht Sub work?

What is a disaster-resistant bridge?

Few man-made structures can survive the unforgiving wrath of Mother Nature, but the Second Penang Bridge in Malaysia can lay claim to just that. Innovative technology used in the construction means it is both earthquake and tsunami-resistant. The bridge is rooted into position by a series of wide, pre-cast concrete pylons mounted at a world record depth of 127 metres (417 feet). Cables are connected to the pylons using third-generation saddles, improving their hold. The 24-kilometre (14.9-mile) bridge has a curved appearance when viewed from above. This is to reduce traffic accidents, forcing drivers to reduce their speed and concentrate on the curve of the road.…

What is a disaster-resistant bridge?

Can aviation be eco-friendly?

When it comes to reinvention of light passenger aircraft, there are few more innovative than the Bio-Electric-Hybrid-Aircraft (BEHA). Seeking to lower costs while offering safer operational capability with lower noise and emissions the BEHA has three engines on board, with one bio-diesel engine effectively powering two electric motors – though the plane can be flown purely on the bio-diesel reserve engine. This improves its safety in the event of engine failure. Solar skin panels will ensure greater energy generation and recovery during flight, in a bid to reduce emissions. What’s more, the plane can take off and land on pure electric energy for reduced flight noise, ensuring it can be used around the clock, even in urban areas where night restrictions may apply. It’s not just the plane’s power source that breaks…

Can aviation be eco-friendly?

How did the Romans deal with crime and punishment?

During the first century CE it is estimated that the city of Rome supported 1 million inhabitants. As with any city, densely populated areas with wide class divides can easily become criminal hotspots. The foundation of Roman law was known as the Twelve Tables, a dozen rules that every citizen had to obey. The Twelve Tables were so important that schoolchildren learnt to read and write by copying laws down and reciting them. While some soldiers, volunteers and officials were tasked with keeping the peace, the city had no dedicated police force, so upholding the law could be difficult. Harsh punishments were the main deterrents, ranging from a brutal beheading to elaborate public executions at the Colosseum. The crimes committed and punishments received often depended on the social standing of…

How did the Romans deal with crime and punishment?

What were the secrets to Tudor beauty?

Perception of beauty varies greatly throughout history, and the Tudors went to great lengths to achieve the ideal. Pale skin was a sign of wealth and relaxation, and tanned, or sunburned skin was an indication of hard labour. Women softened their skin with creams and ointments, and even used ceruse, a cream made of white lead and vinegar, to whiten their complexion. Many suffered from lead poisoning as a result, but they also went to further extremes, such as bleeding themselves to remove any rosy flush. Darker-haired ladies dyed their locks red with henna, or tried to lighten it using urine or cumin, saffron seeds, celandine and oil. Wigs were also fashionable, and high-class women would wear these to achieve the desired colour without a messy dye job. The model queen The Darnley…

What were the secrets to Tudor beauty?

Who were Africa’s witch doctors?

African witch doctors have been practising for around 5,000 years, and are neither witches nor doctors. Their roles and titles vary between regions and tribes but these folk healers often act as either a herbalist, a diviner, or both. They were and still are very highly respected members of society, whose aim is to cure the sick and keep evil spirits away with the help of various different potions and traditions. However, scientists hope to learn more about the effectiveness of the traditional medicines used by these healers, as they have not been well-studied. Some believe it is possible that certain herbal remedies may be beneficial in the treatment of HIV symptoms. Traditional dress With vibrant headwear and facial piercings, witch doctors were both feared and respected…

Who were Africa’s witch doctors?

What was it like to be an American GI?

A lightweight, wind-resistant material called poplin was used to keep soldiers cool in the blistering Sun. This fabric also featured a threaded grid design that prevented it from ripping, while drawstrings around the trousers helped to keep creepy crawlies out. Hybrid boots were introduced, consisting of a leather bottom half and quick-drying canvas on the sides. ERDL camouflage, which is a mixture of shapes coloured either brown, green, beige or black which blend extremely well with the jungle environment, was also introduced to their uniform. Many of these different innovations, along with the introduction of the M16 rifle, became a vital part to the soldiers who served in the Vietnam War. Jungle combat How US Army soldiers were equipped to fight through the challenging conditions…

What was it like to be an American GI?

What was life like inside a Victorian household?

Middle class homes were typically large terraced houses, with front and back gardens and plenty of room for their wife, children and a few servants to live comfortably. Most homes had at least one maid, one cook and a gardener. The family provided the servants with clothing, food and living quarters, and in return they would be required to work long hours for a meagre wage. Managing the staff was often the job of the lady of the house, who spent most of their time was spent entertaining guests, shopping and attending social engagements, while a governess looked after their children for them. Grand designs Take a tour of a traditional terraced house…

What was life like inside a Victorian household?

Why was the Ancient Greek theatre so popular?

We have a lot to thank Ancient Greece for. From democracy to philosophy, this thriving collection of city-states was the birthplace of so many things that we take for granted today – including theatre. The first mention of it dates back to 532 BCE, when an actor called Thespis performed a tragedy. His name has been immortalised as a term for a performer – a ‘thespian’. A few decades later, a festival called the City Dionysia was established in Athens to honour Dionysus, the god of wine. The events centred on competitive performances of tragedies and, from 487 BCE, comedies. Thousands flocked from all over Greece, businesses closed and prisoners were released to take part in five days of festivities. Performances were staged at the Theatre of Dionysus, considered by many…

Why was the Ancient Greek theatre so popular?

What was life like for a Victorian maid?

I ln the large country homes and townhouses of Victorian Britain, it was a maid’s job to be unseen and certainly not heard. That wasn’t always easy when there was work to be done in every room of the house, and with gruelling shifts that were often 16 hours long. From the crack of dawn until the last drop of port had been drunk, a housemaid’s day was filled with lots of cleaning and clearing, serving and sweeping. Without modern-day appliances like vacuums and dishwashers to help them, this was no mean feat. Many suffered from ailments like ‘prepatellar bursitis’, an inflammation of the knee, caused by many hours spent scrubbing floors. Despite this, they considered themselves lucky to have a roof over their head, let alone a job. After all,…

What was life like for a Victorian maid?

How has beer changed?

1988 Plastic Widgets Invented originally for Guinness, plastic widgets are nitrogen-filled spheres. Now common in many lightly carbonated beers, they help release some of the dissolved carbon dioxide bubbles when pouring, creating a frothy ‘head’. 1933 Beer can The Gottfried Krueger Brewing Company was the first to produce beer cans, initially creating 2,000 which were given to its customers to trial. The original aluminium design weighed roughly seven times the average beer can today.. 1858 Fermentation The French chemist Louis Pasteur demonstrated that yeast was responsible for fermenting sugar into alcohol. He also showed that bacterial life could spoil beer, and invented a method called pasteurisation that killed microbes with heat. Circa 1500 Growing popularity During the Middle Ages, beer became hugely popular, particularly in Europe. In 1516 Germany introduced the first purity law, stating that beer may only be brewed…

How has beer changed?

Who were the Mexican bandits?

In 1910 Francisco Madero dared to challenge Díaz for power and the president had him jailed. However, Madero escaped from prison and called for his followers to revolt against the government. Armies of revolutionaries began to spring up across the country. These gangs of bandits used all the firepower they could get their hands on to steal from the rich and give to the poor. They managed to successfully oust Díaz in 1911 but this didn’t end the political unrest. Madero was soon overthrown by Victoriano Huerta, who turned out to be even worse than Díaz, Groups began to turn on each other and even against the US, resulting in many bloody conflicts. Several leaders later, the revolution came to a close, but the legend of the Mexican bandits lives on to…

Who were the Mexican bandits?

How were vinyl records made?

As the vinyl disc spins on the record player, a needle – or stylus – moves along the grooves on its surface. It vibrates as it traces over the thousands of tiny bumps and the music plays. The tech seems simple compared to an iPod or a wireless speaker, yet the process to make one of these vinyl records is quite intricate. Once engineers had perfected the recording in the studio, they would create a master disc. This was made of aluminium and coated with a black lacquer. A machine equipped with an electronic cutting stylus, or needle, would etch the grooves into the lacquer, its path directed by electrical signals from the audio. The finished record was coated with a layer of metal, such as silver or nickel, and this…

How were vinyl records made?

What was WWI’s Vickers-Maxim gun?

The Vickers-Maxim machine gun obliterated battlefields, rattling offover 450 rounds a minute. It entered service in time to see action during World War I and served the British Army for more than 50 years. The key to the design was that it used the power of the cartridge explosion to reload and re-cock the gun after each shot. This became known as a recoil system, as the forward force of the bullet produced an opposing force – the recoil. The force generated pushed the bolt and barrel backwards, while they were locked together. A small metal catch then unlocked the two parts as they moved backwards, before the spring pushed the barrel forward again. The backward motion also ejected the used shell, and a new cartridge was automatically loaded into place…

What was WWI’s Vickers-Maxim gun?

How were Anderson shelters built?

The Anderson shelter was designed to protect up to six people from bombings, and was made of curved, corrugated steel sheets. A shallow pit was dug in the ground, then the six steel sides were put in place and bolted together. The shelter’s roof was covered in a thick layer of earth. By the end of World War II, more than 3.5 million of these structures had been erected throughout the UK. Due to their corrugation, these shelters stood up to nearby bomb blasts surprisingly well. The explosive force of a bomb would easily buckle flat metal sheets, but the curved structure of corrugated steel absorbed this energy without sustaining a huge amount of damage. To prevent the shelters from rusting, their steel sides were coated in zinc, a process known as…

How were Anderson shelters built?

Were there drones in WWII?

In 1933, a modified floatplane called Fairey Queen was tested as the first ever flightless drone aircraft. It crashed on two out of three trials, but in 1934, Queen Bee, a modified Tiger Moth aircraft, followed with greater success. Training gunners on these rudimentary models wasn’t a very realistic simulation, but a solution was soon to come from the United States in the form of British-born actor Reginald Denny, and his Radioplane Company. After years of trying desperately to interest the US Navy in the Radioplane-1, Denny succeeded in 1939 and over the course of the war some 15,374 models of Radioplane were built. Fast, agile and durable, fitted with responsive radio control and were able to mimic the speed and agility of the enemy’s fighters. Beneath the hood of the first UAVs…

Were there drones in WWII?

How did we measure ocean depth?

Egyptions were the first to attempt to measure the depth of the oceans as shown by paintings from 1800 BCE. The images show a man on a boat dipping a sounding pole into the water, measuring how far it goes before it reaches the bottom. Measurements were taken in shallow areas, identifying near-shore hazards. In 1872 the first wide-scale study of the oceans began. The HMS Challenger took 360 depth readings of the sea floor. The devices used a weight to pull a sounding line to the seafloor, collecting samples from the seabed in the process. Helping to identify underwater mountain ranges and trenches, as well as thousands of new marine species, forming the basis of modern oceanography. In 1914 sonar was first used to take accurate measurements.…

How did we measure ocean depth?

What is the Holy Grail?

The Holy Grail is a Christian legend expressed in Western European literature and art. The Grail itself is considered the most sacred Christian relic, most commonly said to be the cup from which Jesus drank at the last supper, and in which Joseph of Arimathea collected Jesus’s blood at the crucifixion. Joseph of Arimathea is said to have then taken the cup to England, where it was hidden for hundreds of years. The knights of King Arthur made it their principal quest to find the cup because, according to the legend, it had special powers.…

What is the Holy Grail?

What did a 19th century fireman look like?

During the late 18th century and early 19th century, firefighters in the USA didn’t have such a good reputation. Firehouses were like social clubs and when news of a fire broke, the volunteers would race other fire companies to the scene. These competitions often resulted in the firefighters battling each other instead of the fire! By the mid-19th century, insurance companies and Republican Party were lobbying for a professional fire service. When horse-drawn, steam-powered water pumps became available, volunteers were replaced with paid fire departments. Firefighters Learn the anatomy of a 19th century fireman…

What did a 19th century fireman look like?

Why was the Sikorsky MH-60 Black Hawk perfect for war?

Two US companies, Boeing Vertol and Sikorsky, went head-tohead with their rival designs for the new combat helicopter, with the latter winning the contract with its S-70 prototype. The MH-60 variant seen here was developed from the standard UH-60 Black Hawk for use during special operations. The machine’s effective range was greatly increased with the addition of a more efficient fuel tank, the installation of systems for aerial refuelling, and the improvement of the craft’s overall survivability. It was during a special operation that these assets would be put to the ultimate test, an incident known as Black Hawk Down. Inside a Black Hawk The high-powered tech behind the MH-60 military machine…

Why was the Sikorsky MH-60 Black Hawk perfect for war?

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