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30 Articles

EDITORIAL – GREAT POWER POLITICS The Hellenistic period is a strange one for the magazine to tackle. For starters, when compared to Classical Greece and the Late Roman Republic, there are far fewer literary sources. More often than not, epigraphy is the only way we learn about particular cities and their activities, and even the activites of the rulers of the Hellenistic empires. Without a strong historical narrative, however, placing these inscriptions in their context can be rather difficult.Yet here we are doing an issue on the Hellenistic period. Not just on the Hellenistic period, but on a rather abstract topic that leaves little in the archaeological record – diplomacy. In spite of the difficulties with studying the period (or, perhaps, because of), this really is a fascinating subject. Not…

Geometric period may have started much earlier

Researchers using radiocarbon analysis to study the chronology of Zagora, an ancient settlement on Andros, Greece, have made a startling revelation: the so-called Geometric Period may have begun much earlier than previously believed. The study’s findings challenge long-established timelines, suggesting that Zagora’s Late Geometric phase commenced at least a century prior to the conventional date of 760 BC. The researchers write: “The dates assigned to Greek Geometric ceramics are based on historical and literary evidence and are found to contradict absolute dates from the central Mediterranean which suggest that the traditional dates are too young.” Radiocarbon analysis pinpoints the earliest occupation of Zagora between 1015 and 925 BC, with subsequent layers shedding light on the evolution of the settlement over centuries. By pushing back the start of the Late Geometric…

Geometric period may have started much earlier

Ancient cities and roads of the Amazon mapped

Fieldwork and light detection and ranging (LiDAR) analysis have revealed a manmade landscape in the Upano Valley of Amazonian Ecuador. The researchers’ report describes more than 6000 earthen platforms and plazas distributed in a geometric pattern connected by roads and interlinked with agricultural landscapes and river drainages. Stéphen Rostain, a research professor at France’s Centre national de la recherche scientifique (CNRS) who directed the study, said: “We discovered that there weren’t just hundreds of human-made platforms in the Upano Valley, but thousands. The data, which was collected over an area of 600 square kilometres, also provided us with a comprehensive map of anthropogenic changes.” The Upano Valley is located in the Amazonian section of the foothills of the Andes. Archaeological excavations date its occupation from around 500 BC to AD…

Ancient cities and roads of the Amazon mapped

Scarab seal may prove Assyrian rule in the Galilee

The engraving on the domed obverse of an accidentally discovered carnelian stone was clearly a scarab. The flat reverse, however, appeared to be a mythical creature, perhaps a griffin or a Pegasus-like winged quadruped. The scarab seal is difficult to date precisely, but is suggestive of the eighth century BC. Its origins,however, remain mysterious. The significance of its discovery is in its potential implications for understanding ancient administrations in the region. The seal’s proximity to the town of Anaharath (Joshua 19:19) in the Lower Galilee hints at its potential connection to the Assyrian rule of the kingdom of Israel. Such seals were essential for administrative purposes, symbolizing authority and official control. A key find at Anaharath dates to the seventh or sixth century BC. It was a large, fortified structure…

Scarab seal may prove Assyrian rule in the Galilee

Toxic seeds found in Roman container in the Netherlands

In 2017 the bone of a sheep or goat was found at Houten-Castellum in The Netherlands. The bone had been hollowed out but sealed on one side with a plug of birch-bark tar and then filled with hundreds of black seeds. The seeds were identified as black henbane (Hyoscyamus niger). It can be used as a medicinal or psychoactive drug. In their report, the researhcers write: “Henbane seeds can be made into a juice for curing all kinds of pain, mucus and disorders of the womb, while the leaves can be applied to the body to soothe pain or be used in a decoction to cure fever.” Uses include relief from stomach pain, stomach ulcers, and muscle cramps. The researchers from The Netherlands and Germany note that the seeds of…

Toxic seeds found in Roman container in the Netherlands

Opulent 'hundred square' temple for Artemis on Euboea

A temple to Artemis Amarynthia, dating to the seventh century BC and filled with treasures, has been uncovered on Evia (Euboea), Greece. The temple’s excavation revealed a trove of riches including gold, silver, and amber artefacts, as well as Corinthian alabaster, Attic vases, and locally crafted ritual items. Its length extends some 34 metres (100 feet), adopting the symbolic measurement found in several ‘hundred-floor’ temples of this period in Greece. The discovery illuminates ancient religious practices, with identified altars. They include a distinctive horseshoe-shaped altar bearing layers of ash rich in charred bones, hinting at continuous usage over time. The temple’s finds suggest a legacy dating back to the Geometric Period. Bronze figurines depicting bulls and a ram, believed to be among the oldest artefacts unearthed, provide tantalizing glimpses into…

Opulent 'hundred square' temple for Artemis on Euboea

Brother and sister re-emerge to tell their tale in Pompeii

Archaeologists working at Parco Archaeologico di Pompei have uncovered a stunning fresco. It portrays the Greek mythological brother Phrixus and sister Helle, encapsulating the timeless themes of tragedy and resilience. The fresco was found when volcanic ash was brushed away from a plastered wall in a room in the southern section of the ‘House of Leda’ in Regio V.6.12. Impeccably well-preserved, the fresco was clearly the work of a master painter. The scene is set on a wall painted yellow within a frame comprising a wide black border with white trim. In vibrant colours, the centrepiece vividly depicts Helle on the brink of drowning. In the story, as told in Ovid’s Art of Love and Metamorphoses, the siblings are forced to flee their home because their malevolent stepmother wants to…

Brother and sister re-emerge to tell their tale in Pompeii

Wealthy Roman villa discovered in England

A large Roman villa complex and a wealth of artefacts have been discovered at a housing development project near Wantage, Oxfordshire in England. The complex is composed of several different buildings. One of the buildings is described as an “aisled building”, a type of structure that is roughly dated to the late first century AD, meaning the villa was constructed soon after the Romans’ initial conquest of Britain under Claudius in AD 43. According to Francesca Giarelli, the site director, one of the buildings in the complex was several storeys tall and “was probably visible for miles”. The villa complex was richly decorated, with painted plasters, mosaics, and tile work. Hundreds of artefacts were also discovered at the site and have helped date the sites period of occupation, which seems…

Wealthy Roman villa discovered in England

THE OBBINK AFFAIR

UNROLLING HISTORY WHEN SCHOLARSHIP TURNS CRIMINAL The Obbink Affair, named after papyrologist Dirk Obbink, actually consists of wo different affairs, which we will call FirstCentury Mark and Sappho. The story combines many different elements from previous papyrological controversies. As such, it is the culmination of this series. FIRST-CENTURY MARK In February 2012, the American researcher Daniel Wallace announced that he had access to a fragment of the Gospel of Mark from the late first century AD. There was no need to doubt its authenticity, because this fragment had been discovered by disassembling a cartonnage, i.e. the papier-mâché part of a mummy. This discovery was at once spectacular and scandalous. The spectacular aspect was that First-Century Mark rebutted the claims of Jesus Mythicists, who claim that the manuscripts of the gospels are…

THE OBBINK AFFAIR

SPECIAL PRE-ROMAN CONNECTIVITY AND CULTURE Amber, the fossilized resin of primordial trees, has fascinated humankind for millennia due to its lustrous, almost otherworldly glow. The largest deposit of amber in the world lies along the modern shores of the Baltic Sea. It remains a major economic asset for the inhabitants of the region, who export hundreds of tonnes of the precious material each year. Ancient civilizations, too, conceived of amber’s value. The Etruscans were especially enthusiastic consumers of Baltic amber. Today, innumerable Etruscan amber artefacts are distributed across museum collections around the world, with nearly three hundred separate objects gracing American museum collections alone. These stand as testaments to the substance’s pervasive significance within Etruscan society. What factors compelled the Etruscans to acquire a commodity only available some two thousand kilometres…

The power of the ram

A ram’s head today on view the J. Paul Getty Museum in Malibu exemplifies the talismanic powers of amber within Etruscan thought. We can surmise that it was once worn as the pendant centrepiece of a necklace based on the grooves on its posterior end. These rabbets suggest the presence of a now-lost metal attachment that joined the amber to a string that would have been worn around the neck. A horned ram, rendered with tremendous anatomical accuracy out of a chunk of fiery red amber, gazes out into the distance in profile. His hollow eyes were once inlaid with a secondary precious material such as glass or lapis lazuli. Rams were ubiquitous Bronze and Iron Age motifs signifying strength, leadership, and guardianship. To wear such an animal close to…

The power of the ram

An international trade hub

Later sources demonstrate a belief that Etruria was a land of natural wealth, and the Etruscans were lovers of luxury. Varro, for example, uses Etruria as the exemplar for a fertile land (On Agriculture 1.9.6) and Dionysius of Halicarnassus notes how the cultivation of vines required little work in the lands of the Tyrrhenians, i.e. the Etruscans (1.37.2). Of course, these sources are both from the first century BC, but the situation must have been somewhat similar in earlier centuries. The natural wealth of the land was certainly an enticing incentive for foreign traders to visit Etruria. Indeed, Etruria was an important node in the trade network that crisscrossed the Mediterranean, from the Gates of Heracles to the Levant. Phoenician and Greek traders frequented the shores of Etruria. Temples to…

An international trade hub

THE TEMPLE OF ARTEMIS

SPECIAL A TALE OF ARSON AND INFAMY Located on the shores of the Aegean, at the edge of the Anatolian plate, Ephesus was no stranger to floods and earthquakes. As a precaution, the temple of Artemis, one of Herodotus’ wonders of the world, had been built on top of a raised plateau, which was itself built atop seismic-proof swamp land strengthened by trodden-in charcoal and sheep’s fleece. But it wasn’t a natural disaster that wiped out the Artemisium. Instead, it was a disgruntled citizen in search of infamy. Herostratus felt burning the temple was the surest way he would be remembered after his death. The Temple of Artemis The temple Herostratus destroyed wasn’t the first iteration of the Artemisium. That one was likely smaller, made from wood and swept away by…

THE TEMPLE OF ARTEMIS

FREEDOM FOR THE GREEKS

THEME: Hellenistic diplomacy THEME THE BASIS OF HELLENISTIC DIPLOMACY With the Greek world being divided between over 1000 poleis, each of which was a possibly enemy or ally, diplomacy was a must. Otherwise, war – the failure of diplomacy – was inevitable, and the events of the fifth century BC show just how destructive war between the Greek poleis could be, as entire cities were destroyed and their people either killed or sold into slavery. The Greek poleis had long had to contend with powers far larger than their own. The Persian Empire, notably, was consistently involved in Greek affairs for most of the fifth and fourth centuries BC. However, with the rise of Macedon and, after the death of Alexander the Great, the creation of the Hellenistic successor kingdoms, the…

FREEDOM FOR THE GREEKS

WEAVING THE DYNASTIC WEB

THEME: Hellenistic diplomacy THEME HELLENISTIC MARRIAGE ALLIANCES In around 250 BC, Magas, the stepson of Ptolemy I, died after ruling Cyrene for almost a quarter of a century. For almost his entire reign he was married to the Seleucid princess Apama. Immediately after he died his widow suddenly replaced their daughter’s fiancé, Ptolemy III, with another man, Demetrius ‘the Handsome’. While Justin (26.1–3) would have us believe that this dynastic move was driven by a sordid tryst between the queen mother and her future son in law, surely there must be more to this story than just forbidden love. Why, after over 25 years in Cyrene, did this queen suddenly find her moment to act? In the otherwise shadowy figure of Apama of Cyrene we find a fascinating insight into the…

WEAVING THE DYNASTIC WEB

Do as the pharaohs did

Despite the importance of dynastic marriages for creating relationships between Hellenistic monarchs the Ptolemies adopted the incestuous marriage practices of their Pharaonic predecessors, making the Ptolemaic family tree more like a family bush. The first full Ptolemaic brother-sister marriage was between Ptolemy II and Arsinoe II, earning both of them the title of Philadelphus (‘sibling-lover’). We do not know the reasons behind this marriage, but it came to quickly define future Ptolemaic royal marriages. It is possible that the marriage was an attempt at continuity with previous Egyptian practices to garner favour among their Egyptian subjects, as the Pharaohs had practiced brother-sister marriage based on the model of Osiris and Isis. The court poet Theocritus compared the marriage to that of Zeus and Hera, offering a Greek model for the…

A THREAT TO GREECE

THEME: Hellenistic diplomacy THEME CELTS AND HELLENISTIC PROPAGANDA For the Classical period, the Persians were an ever-present threat to the Hellenic world, invading mainland Greece in the early fifth century BC and then financing Greek poleis to fight amongst themselves. However, after the conquests of Alexander the Great, the Greco-Macedonian successor kingdoms had replaced the Persians as the dominant powers in the eastern Mediterranean. Yet a new threat soon arrived from the north, as tens of thousands of Celts marched south through Thrace and into Macedonia. The new Macedonian king, Ptolemy Ceraunus, marched out to meet the Celts with a small force and was massacred, leaving Macedonia to be fought over by several pretenders for the throne (Diodorus, 22.3–4), and Greece open to the Celts. Led by Brennus, the Celts moved…

A THREAT TO GREECE

Celtic migrations

In the late fifth century BC, the Celts began to move southwards, across the Alps, and eastwards, into the Balkans. Regardless of the motivations for their travels – Livy, for example, gives overpopulation as the reason (5.34.2) – these were migrations, not invasions. Of course, these Celtic groups were migrating into lands that were already occupied, which would lead to conflict with the local population. In Italy, in the early fourth century BC, the Celts there first clashed with the Etruscans, “envying the beauty of their lands” (Polybius, 2.17), and then, expanding south, attacked Rome, sacking the city (Livy, 5.41–43). In the Balkans, the presence of Celts in the region is attested archaeologically, particularly through graves. Over the fourth century, Celtic influence spread south towards Greece. An embassy from one…

Celtic migrations

Pergamene Priam

The Attalids’ subjects came from many different ethnicities, including Greeks, Phrygians, Mysians, and Pisidians, especially after the Treaty of Apamea in 188 BC. Therefore, for their propaganda to be most effective, the Attalids needed a different conceptual framework from the connection of the Celts with the Persian invasion of Greece, a connection that would likely have only resonated with their Greek subjects. It seems that the Attalids turned to the Trojans to provide an Anatolian-specific framework. The Trojans were the leaders of a multi-ethnic alliance against the Achaeans, who, much like the Celts, invaded from the west. Pergamon already appears as a name for the acropolis of Troy in the Iliad, offering a solid foundation from which to build the image of the Attalids as successors to the Trojans. Demetrius…

Pergamene Priam

DIPLOMACY IN THE HELLENISTIC WORLD

THEME: Hellenistic diplomacy THEME MACEDON AND THE ACHAEAN LEAGUE Despite being overshadowed by the powerful Hellenistic monarchies, the Greeks of the Hellenistic period were not politically irrelevant. While individual Greek cities, including Athens, Sparta, and Thebes, had been in decline since the fourth century, larger federations or koina of cities were on the rise. The shift to larger political structures was a response to the Greeks’ never-ending rivalry but also to the presence of powerful kingdoms on their periphery and the need to band together more effectively. Particularly problematic for those on the mainland was the kingdom of Macedon to the north, which remained a potent threat to Greek autonomy. One of the best documented examples of Greco-Macedonian relations in this period is that between the Achaean League and Macedon at…

DIPLOMACY IN THE HELLENISTIC WORLD

THEME: Hellenistic diplomacy THEME CAUGHT BETWEEN EGYPT AND ROME By the first century BC, the Roman Republic dominated the Mediterranean. Out of Alexander the Great’s successors, only the Ptolemaic dynasty still stood, surviving in part because of its alliance with Rome. Egypt’s agricultural wealth also made it an object of desire for ambitious Roman conquerors, forcing later Ptolemaic rulers to carefully maintain the goodwill of powerful Roman politicians for their own safety. Cleopatra came to power in 52 BC at the age of eighteen, after the death of her father Ptolemy XII, a weak ruler who relied on Roman support to keep his crown, cultivating ties with Pompey the Great, Julius Caesar, and Mark Antony. Cleopatra inherited his debts to Roman politicians, and, consequently, her early reign was preoccupied with managing these…

The donations of Mark Antony

During his tenure as master of the Roman east during his co-rule with Octavian, Mark Antony deigned to grant control of several Roman vassals and client states to Cleopatra in the elaborate celebrations known as the Donations of Antioch (in 36 BC) and Alexandria (in 34 BC). Antony granted Cleopatra territories including Crete, Cyrene, Cyprus, Cilicia, Syria, Armenia, and Phoenicia, increasing Ptolemaic holdings to their greatest extent in over 200 years. He also promised her the still-unconquered Parthia. During this time, Cleopatra took on the title Queen of Kings, signifying her imperial ambitions. While Mark Antony’s enemies, especially Octavian, could present these donations as being the result of Cleopatra’s manipulation of Antony, they were in keeping with previous Roman policy, and part of an ongoing reorganization of Rome’s eastern territories…

The donations of Mark Antony

After Julius Caesar was assassinated in 44 BC, it was revealed in his will that his primary heir, who was to receive three quarters of his property, was his eighteen-year-old nephew, Octavian. Moreover, the will, albeit at the end, stipulated that Caesar had adopted Octavian to be his son. However, it was unsure whether Octavian would accept Caesar’s inheritance. Indeed, his stepfather, Lucius Marcus Philippus, advised him not to. Caesar’s will also contained a clause about nominating guardians for his son, should he have one. Thus, it is possible that he had drawn up his will at a time when he had hoped to have a son of his own, and not just adopted Octavian. Consequently, Cleopatra may have used this clause to try and have Caesarion named Caesar’s heir.…

SELEUCUS, CHANDRAGUPTA, AND MEGASTHENES

THEME: Hellenistic diplomacy THEME SETTING UP SELEUCID-MAURYAN RELATIONS After the death of Alexander the Great, his empire was carved up by his generals. Within two decades, they took the royal title and established their own dynasties. The competition between these successor states characterized the Hellenistic period. Seleucus, a Macedonian general who carved an empire out of Alexander's Asian territories, had to balance his relations with his Macedonian rivals with a new power rising in India - the Mauryan Empire. Seleucus and Chandragupta One pivotal moment in Seleucus’ reign occurred in the final years of the fourth century, when he led an expedition to India. India, too, had changed since Alexander’s day. His foe-turned-ally, Porus, disappears from the historical record in the 310s as a new power came to dominate the Indian subcontinent,…

SELEUCUS, CHANDRAGUPTA, AND MEGASTHENES

A STING IN THE TAIL

SPECIAL HISTORY AND ORIGINS OF PRAETORIAN GUARD By AD 69, the Praetorian Guard had been in operation for nearly a century. Established by Augustus in 27 BC, it was not a new formation. Commanders in the late Republic had made use of similar units for protection, with the first specific reference to a Praetorian cohort (cohors praetoria) appearing in Sallust’s account of the war against Catiline in 62 BC (Catiline 60.5). We also hear of provincial governors having a Praetorian cohort on staff for administrative duties, as in Cicero’s speeches against Verres. Augustus cleverly adapted these two different types of Praetorian cohort for his own purposes. It was clear, given his route to power, that he needed a unit that would ensure protection for him and for the imperial family. The…

A STING IN THE TAIL

The end of the Praetorian Guard

The Praetorian Guard lasted until the early fourth century. In another series of civil wars following the death of Constantius Chlorus in AD 306, the Praetorian Guard sided with the emperor based in Italy, Maxentius, the son of the previous, legitimate emperor, Maximian. Maxentius then used the guard to secure his power in the west until only he and a single rival remained. In 312, Constantine, the son of Constantius Chlorus, marched on Rome. He defeated the Praetorian Prefect, Pompeianus, at Verona and then fought a decisive battle against Maxentius, accompanied by the Praetorian Guard, at the Milvian Bridge north of Rome. It was a complete disaster for Maxentius, he and many of his guard drowning in the River Tiber. As the strongest supporters of Maxentius, the Praetorians were disbanded…

The end of the Praetorian Guard

ALL THE REDS, BLUES, AND GREENS

SPECIAL PAINTING AND PIGMENTS IN ANCIENT EGYPT The study of ancient pigments developed with the modern science of chemistry. Already in the eighteenth century, the discovery of paintings and cakes of pigment at Pompeii inspired investigations of ancient pigments. Researchers today can use a variety of destructive and nondestructive techniques to analyze Egyptian pigments. Flakes of paint can be examined under a microscope to discern the individual grains of pigment. The same flakes can be placed in a scanning electron microscope that launches beams of electrons at them, which can magnify an image more than optical microscopes. The impact of the beam can also cause the object to emit X-rays. With the right additional equipment, these X-ray emissions can be used to measure the percentage of the sample which is made…

ALL THE REDS, BLUES, AND GREENS

A PROFITLESS PROFESSION

LIVING LIKE AN ANCIENT THE PLIGHT OF SCHOOLTEACHERS IN ANCIENT ROME Education in Rome was not usually supplied by the state and there was no formal qualification needed to become a teacher. In many cases the only qualification for getting the job was being able to round up enough paying pupils to make the work worthwhile. For the poorer type of schoolteacher this meant skimping on hiring a classroom by making use of the most convenient open space. The Roman poet and satirist Martial (AD 40–102) was not fond of the sound of education – he also compares the ceaseless chatter of an acquaintance as being like “the schoolmaster's curly-headed class hurrying to their morning lessons” (Epigrams 9.24). It is quite probable that the reason for his displeasure was that the…

A PROFITLESS PROFESSION

The Attalids of Pergamon and Anatolia: Money, Culture, and State Power By Noah Kaye ISBN: 978-1316510599 Cambridge University Press (2022) - £22.99 www.cambridge.org While the Attalids ruled a small corner of Anatolia in the early Hellenistic period, after the Treaty of Apamea, a peace agreement between the Romans and the Seleucids in 188 BC, their kingdom included most of western Anatolia, from the Sea of Marmara to the Mediterranean. As Noah Kaye writes, “the Attalids’ was an overnight empire” (p. 2). For rulers in the Hellenistic period, legitimacy of their rule relied, first and foremost, on the idea that the lands they ruled were ‘spear-won’, i.e. military might made right. The Attalids had no such claim for their new lands, but they quickly consolidated their rule over their new territories.…

READINGS: HELLENISTIC DIPLOMACY

GREAT POWER DIPLOMACY IN THE HELLENISTIC WORLD By John D. Grainger Routledge, 2017 ISBN: 978-0367881900 This book collects a great deal of the available evidence pertaining to diplomatic practices during the Hellenistic period, examining how different methods were utilized in a chronological narrative. While the book is intended for readers who are familiar with Hellenistic history, it is an illuminating exploration of Hellenistic diplomacy and its failures. THE HELLENISTIC PELOPONNESE: INTERSTATE RELATIONS. A NARRATIVE AND ANALYTIC HISTORY, 371-146 BC By Ioanna Kralli The Classical Press of Wales, 2017 ISBN: 978-1910589601 The Peloponnese became a core battleground between the Greek city states and the great powers of the Hellenistic monarchies. Wars were fought and financed in the region by foreign kings. Thus, this book is a useful guide to the complicated…

READINGS: HELLENISTIC DIPLOMACY

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