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70 Articles

Welcome to BOOK OF VIKINGS

THE LEGEND of the Vikings is one that is shrouded in mystery. Their stories and myths have embedded themselves in popular culture, and those are the Vikings we see in films, books and TV shows. But the real Vikings – the Norse seafarers – led an existence that was often more incredible than any fictional tale. In this book, we tell that story, from their origins in Scandinavia to their expeditions across the seas. Known to be ruthless raiders and fearless fighters, discover how the Vikings expanded their empire and conquered new lands. Packed with fascinating facts and stunning imagery, find out what caused the end of the Viking age, what their remaining legacy is, and gaze upon the historical artefacts that help us understand more about these incredible warriors.…

The great white sail cracked as the vicious Atlantic wind lashed against it, but still the ship sailed on. Long and sleek, the warship, crafted from mighty oak, crashed through the waves, sending a sharp spray of water across the deck. The men inside rowed as one, their mighty muscles straining as they plunged the oars deep into the water and drove the ship forward through the turbulent waves. Their strength alone brought the ship to land and they poured out onto the beach. Dressed in thick woollen tunics, the warriors were armed with an array of weapons, from long sharpened spears to hefty battle-axes. With a booming voice one man yelled to the others, thrusting his sword into the air, and the rest bellowed in response. Then onward he…

Welcome to BOOK OF VIKINGS

THE LEGEND of the Vikings is one that is shrouded in mystery. Their stories and myths have embedded themselves in popular culture, and those are the Vikings we see in films, books and TV shows. But the real Vikings – the Norse seafarers – led an existence that was often more incredible than any fictional tale. In this book, we tell that story, from their origins in Scandinavia to their expeditions across the seas. Known to be ruthless raiders and fearless fighters, discover how the Vikings expanded their empire and conquered new lands. Packed with fascinating facts and stunning imagery, find out what caused the end of the Viking age, what their remaining legacy is, and gaze upon the historical artefacts that help us understand more about these incredible warriors.…

The great white sail cracked as the vicious Atlantic wind lashed against it, but still the ship sailed on. Long and sleek, the warship, crafted from mighty oak, crashed through the waves, sending a sharp spray of water across the deck. The men inside rowed as one, their mighty muscles straining as they plunged the oars deep into the water and drove the ship forward through the turbulent waves. Their strength alone brought the ship to land and they poured out onto the beach. Dressed in thick woollen tunics, the warriors were armed with an array of weapons, from long sharpened spears to hefty battle-axes. With a booming voice one man yelled to the others, thrusting his sword into the air, and the rest bellowed in response. Then onward he…

Centuries before Christopher Columbus would stumble upon the land now known as America, the Vikings had claimed the Atlantic Ocean as their own backyard. They had mastered Russia’s river system and reached the Middle East; their impressive voyages helped them to become leaders of a rapidly developing world and this new Viking civilisation thrived on the power of a single creation: the ship. The entire Viking society was built around their ships, which were bigger, lighter and faster than any before. These vessels had been perfected over many years, with the power to brave the vicious storms of the Atlantic Ocean, but also the sleek construction to skim through shallow rivers. These powerful and efficient ships enabled their mighty passengers to create colonies all over the world, and the building…

Centuries before Christopher Columbus would stumble upon the land now known as America, the Vikings had claimed the Atlantic Ocean as their own backyard. They had mastered Russia’s river system and reached the Middle East; their impressive voyages helped them to become leaders of a rapidly developing world and this new Viking civilisation thrived on the power of a single creation: the ship. The entire Viking society was built around their ships, which were bigger, lighter and faster than any before. These vessels had been perfected over many years, with the power to brave the vicious storms of the Atlantic Ocean, but also the sleek construction to skim through shallow rivers. These powerful and efficient ships enabled their mighty passengers to create colonies all over the world, and the building and…

They had arrived in the dead of night; the darkness had been so thick that the monks had not seen their ship until it landed on the shore. It was too late, they all knew it, to call for help. A brother had run into the halls, waking the monks from their beds with shrill cries of “The demons are here! They’re coming! They’re coming!” Some of the brothers began to scream for help, while others leapt into action, grabbing precious items and concealing them in the folds of their cloaks. But already the doors were down and already the invaders were here. They were huge – bigger than any man the humble brethren had ever seen – with their wild blond hair and mighty weapons grasped in hand. They…

They had arrived in the dead of night; the darkness had been so thick that the monks had not seen their ship until it landed on the shore. It was too late, they all knew it, to call for help. A brother had run into the halls, waking the monks from their beds with shrill cries of “The demons are here! They’re coming! They’re coming!” Some of the brothers began to scream for help, while others leapt into action, grabbing precious items and concealing them in the folds of their cloaks. But already the doors were down and already the invaders were here. They were huge – bigger than any man the humble brethren had ever seen – with their wild blond hair and mighty weapons grasped in hand. They…

What were the goods worth? 1 FEMALE SLAVE = 1 COW AND 1 OX 1 SUIT OF CHAIN MAIL = 2 HORSES OR 4 MALE SLAVES 1 HORSE = 3 COWS 1 STIRRUP = 1 SWORD OR 125G OF SILVER Raiders or traders? Stuart Perry, or Fastulf Geraltsson as he is known to the public, is the Jorvik Group’s Interactive Team Leader. He manages a team of Viking interactives at Jorvik Viking Centre and archaeology and history interpreters across the group’s five attractions What was the motivation behind the Viking invasions? Were they simply bloodthirsty raiders, or did they have more civilised aims? The motivation behind the Viking invasions was simple; farmland. The Vikings, or Norsemen – which is a more accurate name since a ‘Viking’ was a sea-borne raider…

What were the goods worth? 1 FEMALE SLAVE = 1 COW AND 1 OX 1 SUIT OF CHAIN MAIL = 2 HORSES OR 4 MALE SLAVES 1 HORSE = 3 COWS 1 STIRRUP = 1 SWORD OR 125G OF SILVER Raiders or traders? Stuart Perry, or Fastulf Geraltsson as he is known to the public, is the Jorvik Group’s Interactive Team Leader. He manages a team of Viking interactives at Jorvik Viking Centre and archaeology and history interpreters across the group’s five attractions What was the motivation behind the Viking invasions? Were they simply bloodthirsty raiders, or did they have more civilised aims? The motivation behind the Viking invasions was simple; farmland. The Vikings, or Norsemen – which is a more accurate name since a ‘Viking’ was a sea-borne raider that specialised in hitand-run attacks – were searching for land. Scandinavia…

ORIGINS OF THE SCANDINAVIAN NATIONS

THE VIKING ORIGIN MYTH ACCORDING TO Snorri Sturluson, writing in the thirteenth century, the origin of the Norse gods can be traced to a Trojan prince called Tror, grandson of King Priam. Tror’s many times-great grandson was Woden, whom the Norse called Odin. Odin had the gift of prophecy and knew that if he travelled to north west Europe he would be remembered for all time, so he set off with a large following. Odin stopped in Frankia where he fathered three sons, who were the origin of the Völsung dynasty, known to many from Wagner’s Ring Cycle. Then he travelled to Denmark, where he established his son Skiöld as king and from him the Skiöldung dynasty, which we know from the Old English epic Beowulf, was descended. Odin…

ORIGINS OF THE SCANDINAVIAN NATIONS

789 AD – 899 AD 789: The first recorded Viking attacks occur along the coasts of northern Europe and southern Britain. 793: Vikings carry out a brutal attack on the monastery of Lindisfarne, an island off the north-east coast of England. 795: The Vikings begin to attack Scotland and Ireland. 800: Vikings settle the Scottish islands of Orkney and Shetland, and discover the Faroe Islands. 840: The Viking city of Dublin is founded in Ireland. 844: The Vikings attack Spain but are driven away. 845: Danish Vikings sack Paris in France and Hamburg in Germany. c. 860: The Viking chieftain Rurik the Rus becomes ruler of Novgorod in Russia. 865–74: The Great Army from Denmark invades and conquers much of England. c. 872: Harald Finehair becomes the first king of…

ORIGINS OF THE SCANDINAVIAN NATIONS

THE VIKING ORIGIN MYTH ACCORDING TO Snorri Sturluson, writing in the thirteenth century, the origin of the Norse gods can be traced to a Trojan prince called Tror, grandson of King Priam. Tror’s many times-great grandson was Woden, whom the Norse called Odin. Odin had the gift of prophecy and knew that if he travelled to north west Europe he would be remembered for all time, so he set off with a large following. Odin stopped in Frankia where he fathered three sons, who were the origin of the Völsung dynasty, known to many from Wagner’s Ring Cycle. Then he travelled to Denmark, where he established his son Skiöld as king and from him the Skiöldung dynasty, which we know from the Old English epic Beowulf, was descended. Odin then travelled…

ORIGINS OF THE SCANDINAVIAN NATIONS

ALTHOUGH THE Vikings did not leave behind any written documents, letters carved on stone or wood called “runes” provide clues about their traditions. More detail can be found in the writings of people who came into contact with the Vikings, but since they were often the victims of raids, their accounts can be unreliable. The Vikings told tales of their adventures that were passed on and eventually written down by Christian scholars in books called “sagas”. These writings tell us much about the Vikings’ spirit of adventure. What’s in a name? Exp erts disagree about where the word “Viking” comes from. Today the word is used for all Scandinavians of the Viking period, but the Old Norse word vikingr was used only for those who went raiding and plundering, or…

789 AD – 899 AD 789: The first recorded Viking attacks occur along the coasts of northern Europe and southern Britain. 793: Vikings carry out a brutal attack on the monastery of Lindisfarne, an island off the north-east coast of England. 795: The Vikings begin to attack Scotland and Ireland. 800: Vikings settle the Scottish islands of Orkney and Shetland, and discover the Faroe Islands. 840: The Viking city of Dublin is founded in Ireland. 844: The Vikings attack Spain but are driven away. 845: Danish Vikings sack Paris in France and Hamburg in Germany. c. 860: The Viking chieftain Rurik the Rus becomes ruler of Novgorod in Russia. 865–74: The Great Army from Denmark invades and conquers much of England. c. 872: Harald Finehair becomes the first king of Norway. 874: Vikings settle Iceland. 886: King Alfred agrees a boundary between…

INCLUDING JOURNEYS that would take them across the globe, find out how – and why – the Vikings spread their wings and discovered new lands far and wide. TRANSPORT SOME VIKINGS travelled extensively. Others remained at home on their farms, growing crops and fishing to survive, but they still needed to travel occasionally, perhaps to visit a neighbour or to go to the Althing, the yearly assembly. Horses were a common means of transport, particularly in Iceland, where travel was easier by land. Although the horses used were not large and were certainly not war horses like medieval knights used, they were a means of travelling relatively quickly. The Vikings made good use of this mobility in their forays abroad. When they invaded East Anglia in the ninth century, they…

ALTHOUGH THE Vikings did not leave behind any written documents, letters carved on stone or wood called “runes” provide clues about their traditions. More detail can be found in the writings of people who came into contact with the Vikings, but since they were often the victims of raids, their accounts can be unreliable. The Vikings told tales of their adventures that were passed on and eventually written down by Christian scholars in books called “sagas”. These writings tell us much about the Vikings’ spirit of adventure. What’s in a name? Exp erts disagree about where the word “Viking” comes from. Today the word is used for all Scandinavians of the Viking period, but the Old Norse word vikingr was used only for those who went raiding and plundering, or i viking.…

INCLUDING JOURNEYS that would take them across the globe, find out how – and why – the Vikings spread their wings and discovered new lands far and wide. TRANSPORT SOME VIKINGS travelled extensively. Others remained at home on their farms, growing crops and fishing to survive, but they still needed to travel occasionally, perhaps to visit a neighbour or to go to the Althing, the yearly assembly. Horses were a common means of transport, particularly in Iceland, where travel was easier by land. Although the horses used were not large and were certainly not war horses like medieval knights used, they were a means of travelling relatively quickly. The Vikings made good use of this mobility in their forays abroad. When they invaded East Anglia in the ninth century, they promptly sought out…

DISCOVERING NEW LANDS

THE VIKINGS were fearless explorers, leaving the safety of their shores to travel thousands of miles in search of new lands. These adventurers were mainly from Norway where there was a shortage of good farmland. As they braved the icy waters of the North Atlantic, many crews and ships were lost in terrible storms, but this didn’t stop the Vikings reaching Iceland, Greenland and eventually North America. The Vikings in Iceland The first settler to arrive on the volcanic island of Iceland was a Norwegian called Ingol f Arnars on. He took his family there around 874 AD and built a large farm on a bay. Thi s later b ecam e Iceland’s capital, Reykjavik. By 930 AD, more than 10,000 Vikings had arrived on the island. They lived mainly…

DISCOVERING NEW LANDS

DISCOVERING NEW LANDS

THE VIKINGS were fearless explorers, leaving the safety of their shores to travel thousands of miles in search of new lands. These adventurers were mainly from Norway where there was a shortage of good farmland. As they braved the icy waters of the North Atlantic, many crews and ships were lost in terrible storms, but this didn’t stop the Vikings reaching Iceland, Greenland and eventually North America. The Vikings in Iceland The first settler to arrive on the volcanic island of Iceland was a Norwegian called Ingol f Arnars on. He took his family there around 874 AD and built a large farm on a bay. Thi s later b ecam e Iceland’s capital, Reykjavik. By 930 AD, more than 10,000 Vikings had arrived on the island. They lived mainly along the…

DISCOVERING NEW LANDS

PERHAPS ONE of the most famous explorers of all time, Leif Erikson is remembered in the sagas as a daring hero. Travelling across the stormy Atlantic Ocean, he became the first European to reach North America around 1002 ad. Fellow Vikings believed that Leif was surely favoured by the gods. The sagas tell that on one sea voyage Leif rescued a shipwrecked crew, which earned him the name “Leif the Lucky”. The Land of Wine Leif grew up hearing about the famed land that lay west of Greenland. As soon as he was able, the young explorer gathered a crew together to retrace Bjarni’s route. Along the way, Lei f found and named three lands. Helluland (Flatstone Land) was probably Ba ffin Island and Markland (Land of Woo ds) was…

PERHAPS ONE of the most famous explorers of all time, Leif Erikson is remembered in the sagas as a daring hero. Travelling across the stormy Atlantic Ocean, he became the first European to reach North America around 1002 ad. Fellow Vikings believed that Leif was surely favoured by the gods. The sagas tell that on one sea voyage Leif rescued a shipwrecked crew, which earned him the name “Leif the Lucky”. The Land of Wine Leif grew up hearing about the famed land that lay west of Greenland. As soon as he was able, the young explorer gathered a crew together to retrace Bjarni’s route. Along the way, Lei f found and named three lands. Helluland (Flatstone Land) was probably Ba ffin Island and Markland (Land of Woo ds) was almost certainly…

RAIDING & TRADING

WITH A reputation as fearless – and often brutal – warriors, the Vikings spread their empire across the globe, doing battle with anyone who stood in their way, often leaving a trail of destruction in their path. ARMS AND ARMOUR THE STEREOTYPICAL Viking is a large man with a big beard, who is heavily armed (see picture left of Vikings at the Battle of Stamford Bridge, 1066). Typical images include a helmet, a coat of mail, a sword, a shield and often a large axe. In fact, the axe may well be the most common weapon with which Vikings are shown. The reality is that, while axes were used, Vikings aspired to owning good swords in the same way as we might aspire to a big house. Bows and spears…

RAIDING & TRADING

RAIDING & TRADING

WITH A reputation as fearless – and often brutal – warriors, the Vikings spread their empire across the globe, doing battle with anyone who stood in their way, often leaving a trail of destruction in their path. ARMS AND ARMOUR THE STEREOTYPICAL Viking is a large man with a big beard, who is heavily armed (see picture left of Vikings at the Battle of Stamford Bridge, 1066). Typical images include a helmet, a coat of mail, a sword, a shield and often a large axe. In fact, the axe may well be the most common weapon with which Vikings are shown. The reality is that, while axes were used, Vikings aspired to owning good swords in the same way as we might aspire to a big house. Bows and spears were common…

RAIDING & TRADING

RAIDING THE WEST

IN 793 AD, Viking warriors ran their longboats ashore on Lindisfarne (an island off the east coast of England) and attacked the Christian monastery there. Terrified, the monks desperately tried to fend off the Vikings, but they were brutally slaughtered and the buildings left in ruins as the warriors escaped with the monastery’s treasures. This was the start of the Vikings’ long reign of terror across Europe. Viking conquerors At first, the Vikings fought in small groups raiding easy coastal targets during the summer months. However, they soon became more daring, spending the winters in places they had captured. The Vikings sailed up the rivers of Europe and attacked great cities such as Paris and Hamburg. Across the British Isles, they established themselves as rulers in areas they had attacked,…

RAIDING THE WEST

RAIDING THE WEST

IN 793 AD, Viking warriors ran their longboats ashore on Lindisfarne (an island off the east coast of England) and attacked the Christian monastery there. Terrified, the monks desperately tried to fend off the Vikings, but they were brutally slaughtered and the buildings left in ruins as the warriors escaped with the monastery’s treasures. This was the start of the Vikings’ long reign of terror across Europe. Viking conquerors At first, the Vikings fought in small groups raiding easy coastal targets during the summer months. However, they soon became more daring, spending the winters in places they had captured. The Vikings sailed up the rivers of Europe and attacked great cities such as Paris and Hamburg. Across the British Isles, they established themselves as rulers in areas they had attacked, and in…

RAIDING THE WEST

ERIC BLOODAXE was the ruler of the Viking kingdom of Northumbria in England. The son of the Norwegian king Harald Finehair, Eric is said to have started his fighting life aged 12. According to the sagas, he was a ruthless warrior, his savagery shocking even his fellow Vikings. However, other sources suggest Eric was under the thumb of his evil wife, Gunnhild, and blame his harsh rule on her wicked influence. A bloodthirsty murderer The eldest and favourite son of his father, Eric earned his fearsome nickname by slaying his four brothers in order to take the Norwegian throne for himself. However, he was a ruthless and unpopular king, and his surviving brother, Hakon the Good, sailed from England to Norway to claim the throne. Eric fled to England where…

ERIC BLOODAXE was the ruler of the Viking kingdom of Northumbria in England. The son of the Norwegian king Harald Finehair, Eric is said to have started his fighting life aged 12. According to the sagas, he was a ruthless warrior, his savagery shocking even his fellow Vikings. However, other sources suggest Eric was under the thumb of his evil wife, Gunnhild, and blame his harsh rule on her wicked influence. A bloodthirsty murderer The eldest and favourite son of his father, Eric earned his fearsome nickname by slaying his four brothers in order to take the Norwegian throne for himself. However, he was a ruthless and unpopular king, and his surviving brother, Hakon the Good, sailed from England to Norway to claim the throne. Eric fled to England where he became…

UNLIKE MODERN soldiers, Viking warriors did not wear a uniform but dressed and armed themselves. Many wore leather tunics and hard leather caps for battle, although these would not have prevented injury from sharpened swords and arrows. Chain-mail shirts made from interlocking iron rings and metal helmets gave much better protection, but were expensive and probably only worn by rich and powerful leaders. Helmets and Shields Very few helmets have survived from the Viking age. Made from iron, they had rounded or pointed tops, and an eye and nose guard or just a simple nose-bar. Warriors carried round wooden shields that protected most of the body. Up to 1 metre across, they would have been painted and may have been covered in leather. An iron knob in the centre known…

A WARRIOR’S most treasured possession was undoubtedly his sword, though he needed to be trained to fight with a variety of weapons. Dead Vikings were often buried with their weapons – a beautiful sword, richly decorated with silver and gold, showed that its owner was wealthy and powerful.…

UNLIKE MODERN soldiers, Viking warriors did not wear a uniform but dressed and armed themselves. Many wore leather tunics and hard leather caps for battle, although these would not have prevented injury from sharpened swords and arrows. Chain-mail shirts made from interlocking iron rings and metal helmets gave much better protection, but were expensive and probably only worn by rich and powerful leaders. Helmets and Shields Very few helmets have survived from the Viking age. Made from iron, they had rounded or pointed tops, and an eye and nose guard or just a simple nose-bar. Warriors carried round wooden shields that protected most of the body. Up to 1 metre across, they would have been painted and may have been covered in leather. An iron knob in the centre known as the…

JARLS AND KARLS

VIKING SOCIETY was divided into three main classes. At the top of the social pyramid was the king along with noble landowners called “jarls”. Beneath the jarls were the “karls” or “freemen” who were usually farmers, merchants, craftsmen or warriors. The lowest of the low were the slaves known as “thralls”. Slaves had no rights at all – they could be bought and sold like property, and were often captured in raids and battles. Kings and kingdoms In early Viking times, Scandinavia was divided into small kingdoms ruled over by local kings and jarls. Rulers were expected to protect their communities but often struggled to keep power. The Vikings held open-air meetings called “Things” where important issues were discussed – any free person could take part. However, over time kings…

JARLS AND KARLS

JARLS AND KARLS

VIKING SOCIETY was divided into three main classes. At the top of the social pyramid was the king along with noble landowners called “jarls”. Beneath the jarls were the “karls” or “freemen” who were usually farmers, merchants, craftsmen or warriors. The lowest of the low were the slaves known as “thralls”. Slaves had no rights at all – they could be bought and sold like property, and were often captured in raids and battles. Kings and kingdoms In early Viking times, Scandinavia was divided into small kingdoms ruled over by local kings and jarls. Rulers were expected to protect their communities but often struggled to keep power. The Vikings held open-air meetings called “Things” where important issues were discussed – any free person could take part. However, over time kings became more…

JARLS AND KARLS

SETTLEMENT ABROAD

ON THE lookout for new places to call home, the Vikings travelled overseas in order to establish new colonies, often to the displeasure of the existing inhabitants which often led to conflict. THE NORSE did not go abroad only to raid or trade as Vikings, they also settled and founded Norse colonies in various parts of the Viking world. Some of the areas they settled were relatively uninhabited, like Iceland, while others required a lot of contact with the existing population, resulting in a certain amount of assimilation, such as in England. THE NORTH ATLANTIC: THE FAROE ISLANDS, ICELAND AND GREENLAND In the early to mid-ninth century, the Vikings reached the Faroe Islands in the Atlantic. The islands had much to offer: good pastures, enough land to grow crops, and…

SETTLEMENT ABROAD

THE VIKING WORLD

AS RAIDERS, traders and explorers, the Vikings ventured far beyond their Scandinavian homelands. They attacked monasteries and towns across Europe, and crossed vast areas of unknown waters to explore and settle lands in the west. In the East, the Vikings made long and dangerous journeys along the rivers of central Europe into Russia, finally reaching the great cities of Constantinople (the heart of the Byzantine empire) and Baghdad. Wherever they settled, the Vikings left behind not only archaeological remains and artefacts but a rich legacy that can be seen today in place names, folk tales and local customs.…

THE VIKING WORLD

SETTLEMENT ABROAD

ON THE lookout for new places to call home, the Vikings travelled overseas in order to establish new colonies, often to the displeasure of the existing inhabitants which often led to conflict. THE NORSE did not go abroad only to raid or trade as Vikings, they also settled and founded Norse colonies in various parts of the Viking world. Some of the areas they settled were relatively uninhabited, like Iceland, while others required a lot of contact with the existing population, resulting in a certain amount of assimilation, such as in England. THE NORTH ATLANTIC: THE FAROE ISLANDS, ICELAND AND GREENLAND In the early to mid-ninth century, the Vikings reached the Faroe Islands in the Atlantic. The islands had much to offer: good pastures, enough land to grow crops, and a large population…

SETTLEMENT ABROAD

THE VIKING WORLD

AS RAIDERS, traders and explorers, the Vikings ventured far beyond their Scandinavian homelands. They attacked monasteries and towns across Europe, and crossed vast areas of unknown waters to explore and settle lands in the west. In the East, the Vikings made long and dangerous journeys along the rivers of central Europe into Russia, finally reaching the great cities of Constantinople (the heart of the Byzantine empire) and Baghdad. Wherever they settled, the Vikings left behind not only archaeological remains and artefacts but a rich legacy that can be seen today in place names, folk tales and local customs.…

THE VIKING WORLD

HARALD HARDRADA

ONE OF the most feared rulers in Europe, Harald Hardrada was the king of Norway from 1046 to 1066. His true name was Harald Sigurdsson, but the king’s reputation for crushing enemies earned him the nickname Hardrada or “the Ruthless”. Harald ruled his kingdom with an iron first but first and foremost he was a warrior, a man who showed no mercy to those he conquered. Harald the Ruthless Harald was the half-brother of the Norwegian king Olaf Haraldsson. In 1030, when he was just 15, he fought with his brother at the battle of Stiklestad where Olaf was defeated. Harald escaped from Norway to the Russian state of Kiev and became a military commander. Later, he fought for the Byzantine Empire and made a fortune through raiding. In 1045,…

HARALD HARDRADA

HARALD HARDRADA

ONE OF the most feared rulers in Europe, Harald Hardrada was the king of Norway from 1046 to 1066. His true name was Harald Sigurdsson, but the king’s reputation for crushing enemies earned him the nickname Hardrada or “the Ruthless”. Harald ruled his kingdom with an iron first but first and foremost he was a warrior, a man who showed no mercy to those he conquered. Harald the Ruthless Harald was the half-brother of the Norwegian king Olaf Haraldsson. In 1030, when he was just 15, he fought with his brother at the battle of Stiklestad where Olaf was defeated. Harald escaped from Norway to the Russian state of Kiev and became a military commander. Later, he fought for the Byzantine Empire and made a fortune through raiding. In 1045, Harald returned…

HARALD HARDRADA

FARMS AND TOWNS

IN VIKING times, most people were farmers and hunters who lived in the countryside. Animals such as sheep, pigs and cows were raised for food and milk, and crops such as barley and wheat were grown. Conditions in the Viking homelands could be very difficult – the weather was often bitterly cold and in Norway there was a lack of good farmland. This is one of the reasons why the Vikings left their shores in search of new lands. Town life Viki ng settlements grew up near rivers and the sea where ships could be easily loaded. Some trading centres such as Hedeby in Denmark and Dubli n in Ireland b ecame bustling towns. The narrow, muddy streets would have been crowded and noisy, lined with houses and market stalls…

FARMS AND TOWNS

THE VIKINGS developed a way of writing using marks or letters called runes. The 16 letters were made up of straight and diagonal lines so that brief messages could easily be carved into stone, bone and wood. The Viking alphabet was known as “futhark” after the first six sounds. Glorious battles and heroic warriors were celebrated in memorial stones known as rune stones, which have been found across the Viking world. The word “runes” means something secret or hidden, and Vikings thought runes had their own powerful magic.…

FARMS AND TOWNS

IN VIKING times, most people were farmers and hunters who lived in the countryside. Animals such as sheep, pigs and cows were raised for food and milk, and crops such as barley and wheat were grown. Conditions in the Viking homelands could be very difficult – the weather was often bitterly cold and in Norway there was a lack of good farmland. This is one of the reasons why the Vikings left their shores in search of new lands. Town life Viki ng settlements grew up near rivers and the sea where ships could be easily loaded. Some trading centres such as Hedeby in Denmark and Dubli n in Ireland b ecame bustling towns. The narrow, muddy streets would have been crowded and noisy, lined with houses and market stalls selling goods.…

FARMS AND TOWNS

THE VIKINGS developed a way of writing using marks or letters called runes. The 16 letters were made up of straight and diagonal lines so that brief messages could easily be carved into stone, bone and wood. The Viking alphabet was known as “futhark” after the first six sounds. Glorious battles and heroic warriors were celebrated in memorial stones known as rune stones, which have been found across the Viking world. The word “runes” means something secret or hidden, and Vikings thought runes had their own powerful magic.…

VIKING LIFE wasn’t all about conquering new lands and expanding their empire. They had their own social structure, beliefs and rituals, and expressed their artistic side through the likes of poetry and crafts. THE SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES IN THE VIKING AGE NORWAY, SWEDEN and Denmark did not exist as clearly defined countries until the late Viking Age. The social and political organization could vary by region and the varying landscapes and different contacts with other peoples made the “Scandinavian” culture in the Viking Age less homogenous than it is often thought to be. In Sweden, the regions of Götaland in the south, Svealand (central Sweden, Blekinge, part of the coastal region to the north and Öland) and Norrland in the north had their own leaders throughout the Viking Age. The island…

THE VIKINGS AT HOME

MOST VIKING families lived in long, low farmhouses consisting of one main room. Depending on the region and materials available, houses were built of stone, wood or turf, and often had thatched or turf roofs. Floors consisted of flattened earth, and walls could be made of “wattle” (branches woven together), which was smeared with mud or dung to keep out the wind and rain. Home comforts Most Viking homes would have been very crowded with three or more generations living under one roof. Houses were dark and smoky with only a dim light given out by the cooking fire and lamps hung on ropes. In the bitterly cold winters, many families were forced to share their living space with farm animals that were penned in at one end of the…

THE VIKINGS AT HOME

VIKING LIFE wasn’t all about conquering new lands and expanding their empire. They had their own social structure, beliefs and rituals, and expressed their artistic side through the likes of poetry and crafts. THE SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES IN THE VIKING AGE NORWAY, SWEDEN and Denmark did not exist as clearly defined countries until the late Viking Age. The social and political organization could vary by region and the varying landscapes and different contacts with other peoples made the “Scandinavian” culture in the Viking Age less homogenous than it is often thought to be. In Sweden, the regions of Götaland in the south, Svealand (central Sweden, Blekinge, part of the coastal region to the north and Öland) and Norrland in the north had their own leaders throughout the Viking Age. The island of Gotland was…

IN VIKING times, family ties were strong. A man was head of his household, but women took charge when their husbands were away. Children didn’t go to school, but instead helped in the fields and with cooking, weaving and spinning. Families and communities needed to provide for themselves, and children learnt important skills from a young age. Over a thousand years have passed since this buckle fastened a warrior’s belt. Made of bronze and dulled by the passing centuries, it was likely once decorated to show its owner’s importance. Robert Macleod Viking fashions The style of clothing changed very little during the Viking age. Men wore woollen trousers and linen shirts, and over these a longsleeved tunic and belt. When the weather was cold, heavy cloaks and furs kept them…

THE VIKINGS AT HOME

MOST VIKING families lived in long, low farmhouses consisting of one main room. Depending on the region and materials available, houses were built of stone, wood or turf, and often had thatched or turf roofs. Floors consisted of flattened earth, and walls could be made of “wattle” (branches woven together), which was smeared with mud or dung to keep out the wind and rain. Home comforts Most Viking homes would have been very crowded with three or more generations living under one roof. Houses were dark and smoky with only a dim light given out by the cooking fire and lamps hung on ropes. In the bitterly cold winters, many families were forced to share their living space with farm animals that were penned in at one end of the house. Around the…

THE VIKINGS AT HOME

IN VIKING times, family ties were strong. A man was head of his household, but women took charge when their husbands were away. Children didn’t go to school, but instead helped in the fields and with cooking, weaving and spinning. Families and communities needed to provide for themselves, and children learnt important skills from a young age. Over a thousand years have passed since this buckle fastened a warrior’s belt. Made of bronze and dulled by the passing centuries, it was likely once decorated to show its owner’s importance. Robert Macleod Viking fashions The style of clothing changed very little during the Viking age. Men wore woollen trousers and linen shirts, and over these a longsleeved tunic and belt. When the weather was cold, heavy cloaks and furs kept them warm. Viking women…

THE VIKING UNIVERSE

THE VIKINGS believed the universe was ruled over by many gods and goddesses, and that amazing creatures lived in its various parts. At the centre of the universe was Yggdrasil, an ash tree that held everything together. Humans lived in Midgard, which was surrounded by an ocean containing a giant serpent. The gods were found in Asgard and Vanaheim, while giants, trolls and other dreadful beings lived in separate kingdoms. At the bottom of the tree was Niflheim, an icy place of eternal darkness. The Chief Gods The most important Viking god was Odin, whose one eye was said to blaze like the sun. The god of war and wisdom, Odin was thought to possess many amazing powers. Thor, the god of thunder, was incredibly strong though not as clever…

THE VIKING UNIVERSE

SAGAS AND LEGENDS

THE VIKINGS loved to tell each other thrilling legends of gods and monsters, and tales of heroic warriors and battles. Some stories recounted the adventures of kings while others were gripping accounts of ordinary families. The legends weren’t written down by the Vikings themselves – it was not until the thirteenth century that writers began to record these stories in books called sagas. The Story of Burnt Njal This famous saga about an Icelandic family has much to tell us about Viking beliefs. Honour was all-important and minor disagreements could result in years of bloodshed. The tale is about two friends Gunnar and Njal. Their close friendship is tested when Gunnar, a powerful warrior, marries an evil widow who begins a deadly feud with Njal’s wife. As the conflict spreads…

SAGAS AND LEGENDS

THE VIKING UNIVERSE

THE VIKINGS believed the universe was ruled over by many gods and goddesses, and that amazing creatures lived in its various parts. At the centre of the universe was Yggdrasil, an ash tree that held everything together. Humans lived in Midgard, which was surrounded by an ocean containing a giant serpent. The gods were found in Asgard and Vanaheim, while giants, trolls and other dreadful beings lived in separate kingdoms. At the bottom of the tree was Niflheim, an icy place of eternal darkness. The Chief Gods The most important Viking god was Odin, whose one eye was said to blaze like the sun. The god of war and wisdom, Odin was thought to possess many amazing powers. Thor, the god of thunder, was incredibly strong though not as clever as Odin.…

THE VIKING UNIVERSE

THE MIDGARD SERPENT

IN VIKING myths, the god Loki had three monstrous children: the wolf Fenrir, the dreadful goddess Hel, and Jormungand, a giant serpent also known as the Midgard Serpent. Even the gods were afraid of Jormungand, and Odin decided to get rid of this terrible creature by tossing it into the ocean. Here the serpent grew so large that eventually it encircled the entire world. Sailors venturing across the seas were ever fearful that the Midgard Serpent would rise up from the ocean depths and crush their ships in its massive jaws or destroy them with its deadly venom.…

THE MIDGARD SERPENT

SAGAS AND LEGENDS

THE VIKINGS loved to tell each other thrilling legends of gods and monsters, and tales of heroic warriors and battles. Some stories recounted the adventures of kings while others were gripping accounts of ordinary families. The legends weren’t written down by the Vikings themselves – it was not until the thirteenth century that writers began to record these stories in books called sagas. The Story of Burnt Njal This famous saga about an Icelandic family has much to tell us about Viking beliefs. Honour was all-important and minor disagreements could result in years of bloodshed. The tale is about two friends Gunnar and Njal. Their close friendship is tested when Gunnar, a powerful warrior, marries an evil widow who begins a deadly feud with Njal’s wife. As the conflict spreads far beyond…

SAGAS AND LEGENDS

THE MIDGARD SERPENT

IN VIKING myths, the god Loki had three monstrous children: the wolf Fenrir, the dreadful goddess Hel, and Jormungand, a giant serpent also known as the Midgard Serpent. Even the gods were afraid of Jormungand, and Odin decided to get rid of this terrible creature by tossing it into the ocean. Here the serpent grew so large that eventually it encircled the entire world. Sailors venturing across the seas were ever fearful that the Midgard Serpent would rise up from the ocean depths and crush their ships in its massive jaws or destroy them with its deadly venom.…

THE MIDGARD SERPENT

A VIKING BURIAL

THE VIKINGS believed in the afterlife and so they buried their dead with all kinds of objects that might be needed in the next world. Prized weapons, tools, clothes and jewellery were all common grave goods. Ordinary people were buried in simple graves, often beneath an earth mound, but wealthier Vikings were frequently buried in boats or ships to carry them safely to the afterlife. Sometimes the vessel was set alight and burnt in a funeral pyre. Animals and even slaves were sacrificed and buried with important Vikings. A ship fit for a Queen In 1903, archaeologists uncovered a beautiful ship at the Oseberg burial mound near Oslo in Norway. Like the Gokstad ship discovered in 1880, blue clay surrounding the vessel had preserved it. The ship was made almost…

A VIKING BURIAL

A VIKING BURIAL

THE VIKINGS believed in the afterlife and so they buried their dead with all kinds of objects that might be needed in the next world. Prized weapons, tools, clothes and jewellery were all common grave goods. Ordinary people were buried in simple graves, often beneath an earth mound, but wealthier Vikings were frequently buried in boats or ships to carry them safely to the afterlife. Sometimes the vessel was set alight and burnt in a funeral pyre. Animals and even slaves were sacrificed and buried with important Vikings. A ship fit for a Queen In 1903, archaeologists uncovered a beautiful ship at the Oseberg burial mound near Oslo in Norway. Like the Gokstad ship discovered in 1880, blue clay surrounding the vessel had preserved it. The ship was made almost entirely of…

A VIKING BURIAL

THE END OF THE VIKING AGE

WITH SCANDINAVIA becoming part of Europe – plus the spread of Christianity – it was the beginning of the end for the Vikings… THE COMING OF CHRISTIANITY: MISSIONARIES, KINGS AND WOMEN IN THE late Viking Age, Christianity came to Scandinavia, but Vikings had known about the Christian religion for a long time, as the rest of Europe had been Christian since the early Viking Age. Vikings first became familiar with Christianity abroad, and Christian merchants frequented the Scandinavian trading centres. Vikings regularly chose to be baptized on expeditions when trade or diplomatic contacts were at stake. They were not exactly converted: Christ, the holy trinity and the saints were simply added to the existing system of beliefs. Scandinavians who settled abroad, like many did in England, Scotland and Ireland, adopted…

THE END OF THE VIKING AGE

THE END OF THE VIKING AGE

WITH SCANDINAVIA becoming part of Europe – plus the spread of Christianity – it was the beginning of the end for the Vikings… THE COMING OF CHRISTIANITY: MISSIONARIES, KINGS AND WOMEN IN THE late Viking Age, Christianity came to Scandinavia, but Vikings had known about the Christian religion for a long time, as the rest of Europe had been Christian since the early Viking Age. Vikings first became familiar with Christianity abroad, and Christian merchants frequented the Scandinavian trading centres. Vikings regularly chose to be baptized on expeditions when trade or diplomatic contacts were at stake. They were not exactly converted: Christ, the holy trinity and the saints were simply added to the existing system of beliefs. Scandinavians who settled abroad, like many did in England, Scotland and Ireland, adopted the Christian…

THE END OF THE VIKING AGE

THE LAST VIKINGS

DURING THE eleventh century, Viking raids became less successful as European leaders built up armies and defended their territories. In Scandinavia, the spread of Christianity led to more stability and people began to reject old ideas. Raiding was no longer encouraged by powerful Scandinavian kings and elsewhere Viking settlers became part of new communities with different beliefs and traditions. The coming of the Normans In 1066, the defeat of Harald Hardrada at the Battle of Stamford Bridge came to symbolize the death of Viking power. In the same year, the Normans – who were in fact descendants of Viking settlers in Normandy – invaded England, and William “the Conqueror” took the English throne. Norse raids did not altogether stop at this point, though they became much less common. The great…

THE LAST VIKINGS

THE LAST VIKINGS

DURING THE eleventh century, Viking raids became less successful as European leaders built up armies and defended their territories. In Scandinavia, the spread of Christianity led to more stability and people began to reject old ideas. Raiding was no longer encouraged by powerful Scandinavian kings and elsewhere Viking settlers became part of new communities with different beliefs and traditions. The coming of the Normans In 1066, the defeat of Harald Hardrada at the Battle of Stamford Bridge came to symbolize the death of Viking power. In the same year, the Normans – who were in fact descendants of Viking settlers in Normandy – invaded England, and William “the Conqueror” took the English throne. Norse raids did not altogether stop at this point, though they became much less common. The great age of…

THE LAST VIKINGS

THE VIKING LEGACY

FAR FROM disappearing into the annals of time, the Vikings left a lasting legacy that lives on today, from archeological material to the legendary myths that still prove popular nowadays. THE LINGUISTIC, GENETIC AND CULTURAL INHERITANCE BY THE end of the Viking Age, the Scandinavians who had settled in the British Isles had been mixing with the people there for a couple of generations. The result was a distinct Norse influence in regions where many Vikings had settled, such as the former Danelaw and the Northern Isles. We can still see this in, for example, the dialects and place-names in those regions. Norn is an extinct language closely related to the Old Norse of the Vikings settlers. It was spoken in the Northern Isles and the far north of Scotland…

THE VIKING LEGACY

THE VIKING LEGACY

FAR FROM disappearing into the annals of time, the Vikings left a lasting legacy that lives on today, from archeological material to the legendary myths that still prove popular nowadays. THE LINGUISTIC, GENETIC AND CULTURAL INHERITANCE BY THE end of the Viking Age, the Scandinavians who had settled in the British Isles had been mixing with the people there for a couple of generations. The result was a distinct Norse influence in regions where many Vikings had settled, such as the former Danelaw and the Northern Isles. We can still see this in, for example, the dialects and place-names in those regions. Norn is an extinct language closely related to the Old Norse of the Vikings settlers. It was spoken in the Northern Isles and the far north of Scotland and declined…

THE VIKING LEGACY

THE VIKINGS were skilled craftsmen, expert at shipbuilding, metalworking and woodwork. In every home, essential tools were made and repaired while women spun and wove to make the family’s clothes. Both men and women wore jewellery and many beautifully crafted pieces have been discovered. Gold and silver were a sign of wealth, while cheaper pieces were made from bronze, copper, carved animal bones and coloured glass.…

THE JELLING STONE

THIS DETAIL (below) is a copy from one of two rune stones discovered at Jelling in Jutland, Denmark. The threesided stone was raised by the Danish king Harald Bluetooth in honour of his royal parents over 1,200 years ago. An inscription on one side reads: “King Harald commanded this monument to be made in memory of Gorm his father and in memory of Thyre his mother – that Harald who won the whole of Denmark for himself and made the Danes Christian”. The figure shown here is the earliest Scandinavian image of Jesus Christ – Harald became a Christian around 960 AD.…

THE JELLING STONE

THE JELLING STONE

THIS DETAIL (below) is a copy from one of two rune stones discovered at Jelling in Jutland, Denmark. The threesided stone was raised by the Danish king Harald Bluetooth in honour of his royal parents over 1,200 years ago. An inscription on one side reads: “King Harald commanded this monument to be made in memory of Gorm his father and in memory of Thyre his mother – that Harald who won the whole of Denmark for himself and made the Danes Christian”. The figure shown here is the earliest Scandinavian image of Jesus Christ – Harald became a Christian around 960 AD.…

THE JELLING STONE

THIS COLLECTION of rare documents provides a fascinating insight into the Viking culture and lifestyle, including drawings, maps and manuscripts, along with translations. EXHIBIT I - PLAN OF A VIKING SHIP SLATE WITH SKETCH OF VIKING SHIP, SHETLAND A ninth-century sketch of a Viking Ship on slate, found at a farm on the Shetland Islands north of Scotland. Vikings began to settle permanently in the Shetland Islands from the ninth century onwards. EXHIBIT II - SKALHOLT MAP SKÁLHOLT MAP In the sixteenth century Sigurd Stefansson from Skálholt marked the sites of the ancient Norse discoveries on a map. His original map has not survived, but a copy made in 1690 by Thordur Thorlaksson is in the Danish Royal Library..Stefansson’s positioning of Vinland encouraged archaeological digs at L’Anse Aux Meadows in…

THIS COLLECTION of rare documents provides a fascinating insight into the Viking culture and lifestyle, including drawings, maps and manuscripts, along with translations. EXHIBIT I - PLAN OF A VIKING SHIP SLATE WITH SKETCH OF VIKING SHIP, SHETLAND A ninth-century sketch of a Viking Ship on slate, found at a farm on the Shetland Islands north of Scotland. Vikings began to settle permanently in the Shetland Islands from the ninth century onwards. EXHIBIT II - SKALHOLT MAP SKÁLHOLT MAP In the sixteenth century Sigurd Stefansson from Skálholt marked the sites of the ancient Norse discoveries on a map. His original map has not survived, but a copy made in 1690 by Thordur Thorlaksson is in the Danish Royal Library..Stefansson’s positioning of Vinland encouraged archaeological digs at L’Anse Aux Meadows in the 1960s. EXHIBIT III -…

PICTURE CREDITS

Photographs from the following sources have been included with their permission; AKG-Images, Bildarchiv Steffens, Interfoto, Alamy, Marvin Dembinsky Photo Associates, David Gowans, Lebrecht Music and Arts Photo Library, The Picture Desk, Prisma Archivo, Berig via Wikipedia Commons, The Bridgeman Art Library: Giraudon, Musee de la Tapisserie, Bayeux, France, Private Collection, Universal History Archive/UIG, Bromr via Wikipedia Commons, The British Museum Images: ¬© The Trustees of the British Museum, Corbis: Christel Gerstenberg, Gianni Dagli Orti, Christian Kober/Hulton-Deutsch Collection, Charles & Josette Lenars, Yves Marcoux/First Light, National Geographic Society, Robert Harding World Imagery, Body Philippe/Hemis, Carmen Redondo, Carsten Rehder/EPA, Paul Souders, Ted Spiegel, Stapleton Collection, Homer Sykes, Werner Forman Archive, Getty Images, AFP, UIG, Werner Forman Archive/Universal Images Group, Heritage-Images: CM Dixon, Werner Forman Archive/National, Hog Vikutsnitt, Kjell Ove Storvik, Moscow, State…

PICTURE CREDITS

PICTURE CREDITS

Photographs from the following sources have been included with their permission; AKG-Images, Bildarchiv Steffens, Interfoto, Alamy, Marvin Dembinsky Photo Associates, David Gowans, Lebrecht Music and Arts Photo Library, The Picture Desk, Prisma Archivo, Berig via Wikipedia Commons, The Bridgeman Art Library: Giraudon, Musee de la Tapisserie, Bayeux, France, Private Collection, Universal History Archive/UIG, Bromr via Wikipedia Commons, The British Museum Images: ¬© The Trustees of the British Museum, Corbis: Christel Gerstenberg, Gianni Dagli Orti, Christian Kober/Hulton-Deutsch Collection, Charles & Josette Lenars, Yves Marcoux/First Light, National Geographic Society, Robert Harding World Imagery, Body Philippe/Hemis, Carmen Redondo, Carsten Rehder/EPA, Paul Souders, Ted Spiegel, Stapleton Collection, Homer Sykes, Werner Forman Archive, Getty Images, AFP, UIG, Werner Forman Archive/Universal Images Group, Heritage-Images: CM Dixon, Werner Forman Archive/National, Hog Vikutsnitt, Kjell Ove Storvik, Moscow, State Historical…

PICTURE CREDITS

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