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35 Articles

WELCOME TO ALL ABOUT HISTORY BOOK OF THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN

The Second World War will always hold a legendary place in Britain’s history, and indeed the history of the world. Few campaigns within either of the world wars are as well-known and remembered as the Battle of Britain. Immortalised in Churchill’s speech before the battle even began, it was foremost a conflict in the sky, but its effects were also felt keenly on the ground. In this special 75th anniversary edition, you’ll find incredible images of the battle’s people and planes, its devastating effects, and in-depth information about key moments and strategies. You’ll also find fascinating insights into how people experienced the war, with facsimiles of documents including letters sent home to loved ones, instructional pamphlets used by pilots, and morale reports. Discover the battle through the eyes of those…

WELCOME TO ALL ABOUT HISTORY BOOK OF THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN

FORGOTTEN HEROES

On 18 June 1940, Winston Churchill stood up in Parliament. The mood was gloomy. France had just surrendered, most of Europe was now under Nazi control and Britain faced Germany alone. “The Battle of France is over,” he announced. “The Battle of Britain is about to begin. Hitler knows he must break us in these islands or lose the war. If we can stand up to him, all Europe may be freed. But if we fail, then the whole world will sink into the abyss of a new dark age.” Churchill had been warning of war for years but few had listened. The Nazis had spent much of the 1930s building the modern war machine that had just ravaged most of Europe. By contrast, British rearmament had only begun in…

FORGOTTEN HEROES

A DAY IN THE LIFE OF A BATTLE OF BRITAIN PILOT

WOKEN AT DAWN All fighter pilots’ days started at dawn with a cup of tea brought to them by a junior rank. They wash and dress before being driven in lorries to the dispersal area. Here, by the runway, they eat breakfast – if they have the time – and wait. “SCRAMBLE!” By mid-morning, the radar stations start picking up incoming enemy aircraft. The dispersal area phone rings. The duty officer answers, nods his head, then clicks on the tannoy and shouts “Scramble!” into the receiver and across the airfield. INTO THE AIR Having raced to their planes, clambered into their parachutes and climbed into their aircraft, which fitters will already have started for them, pilots begin to taxi down the runway and take to the air. MISSION BRIEFING With…

A DAY IN THE LIFE OF A BATTLE OF BRITAIN PILOT

GERMANY'S FIGHTER ACES

OBERLEUTNANT HELMUT WICK BATTLE OF BRITAIN KILLS: 42 Wick was the highest-scoring pilot of the battle. The 25-year-old became only the fourth member of the German armed forces to be awarded the King’s Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaf Clusters. He was killed in combat in November 1940. MAJOR ADOLF GALLAND BATTLE OF BRITAIN KILLS: 35 Galland would go on to become the youngest general in the German military, attaining the rank of general of the fighter arm in 1941. His total number of kills for the war was 104, despite being banned from combat between December 1941 and the end of 1944 by Hitler himself. HAUPTMAN WALTER OESAU BATTLE OF BRITAIN KILLS: 34 By the time the Battle of Britain started, Oesau was already a veteran of…

GERMANY'S FIGHTER ACES

SPITFIRE SM520 1948-1951

The Spitfire is almost ubiquitous when discussing Britain’s war in the skies during War World II. There were 22 different versions of the classic interceptor fighter built during the height of its time in the RAF. One of these was the SM520, a two-seater plane based on the TR9 model, which itself came from a Spitfire Mk IX. The conversion from one to two seats was a post-war program, with the first SM520 arriving in 1948. The project helped provide flight and gunnery practise for new recruits to the RAF, such as the Irish Air Corps (IAC) Seafire fleet and many other air forces in what was to become the Commonwealth of Nations. This particular model was constructed as a oneseater TR9 in a West Bromwich factory and was first…

SPITFIRE SM520 1948-1951

BATTLE IN THE SKIES

No other battle in recent British history has been accorded the same status as the Battle of Britain, fought out over the skies of England in the summer and autumn of 1940 between the Royal Air Force and the German air force. The Battle followed on from the defeat of France in June 1940 and the expulsion of British forces from Continental Europe during the Dunkirk evacuation. The general expectation in Britain was of a German invasion at some point later in 1940. One way of ensuring that invasion might be postponed was to deny the German forces air superiority over southern England. The onus of achieving this fell on RAF Fighter Command. The failure of the German air force to eliminate British fighter defences played a critical part in…

BATTLE IN THE SKIES

THE FIRST BATTLE OF BRITAIN 1917–18

When a German aircraft dropped a bomb on the port of Dover on 24 December 1914, it marked the first successful aerial attack on British soil. What followed was an intermittent series of attacks that increased in intensity by the middle of the First World War and petered out again after May 1918, six months before the war’s end. In total, Britain was subjected to 51 attacks by German airships and 52 attacks by aircraft. This was on a small scale compared with the air battles of the Second World War, but the first Battle of Britain had important repercussions for the greater battle fought a generation later. Air power was in its infancy in 1914 and the German decision to attack British targets from the air was based on…

THE FIRST BATTLE OF BRITAIN 1917–18

AIR DEFENCE BETWEEN THE WARS

The development of the RAF during the interwar years suffered from an evident contradiction. On the one hand, most leading airmen and air theorists assumed that air power was most effective when used in an offensive bombing role. On the other, Britain’s evident vulnerability to air attack, demonstrated during the First World War, made the development of an effective air defence against enemy bombing imperative. For much of the interwar period, it was assumed that the balance of advantage lay with the attacking bomber aircraft. The difference in performance between fighters and bombers was too small to give fighters much chance of getting into the air, finding the enemy and shooting them down. The general view was that possession of a bomber force which could threaten a potential enemy, a…

AIR DEFENCE BETWEEN THE WARS

FIGHTER COMMAND 1940

Fighter Command was only four years old when the Battle of Britain began. It formally came into existence on 14 July 1936 when the RAF was divided into four separate commands – Fighter, Coastal, Bomber and Training. The new force was placed under the command of Air Marshal Hugh Dowding and its headquarters sited at Bentley Priory on the outskirts of London. Although fighter squadrons had existed in the old air defence system, Dowding faced the remarkable challenge of having to create an entirely new and effective fighting organization in a matter of a few years. The force was divided into a number of groups to defend particular geographical areas, and each group contained a number of sector stations where the operational aircraft were based. The south-east of England was…

FIGHTER COMMAND 1940

THE LUFTWAFFE 1940

The German air force was reborn in March 1935 when Hitler formally announced that Germany was rearming in defiance of the Treaty of Versailles. The first German air force was abolished in 1919 when the terms of the Treaty denied Germany any military aircraft or an organized air force. During the 1920s, the German army kept abreast of current aviation developments and, following agreements in 1922 and 1926 with the Soviet Union, German pilots were given facilities at Soviet air bases to try out new aircraft. The Defence Ministry had an office of air affairs and when Hitler came to power in January 1933, it was hoped that this could form the nucleus for secret air rearmament. Hitler’s close political ally, Hermann Goering, former commander of the Richthofen squadron at…

THE LUFTWAFFE 1940

DOWDING VERSUS GOERING

There was a striking contrast between the two commanders who faced each other for the Battle of Britain in the summer of 1940. Hugh Dowding was effectively commander of the defensive battle, although he was also responsible to the chief of the air staff, Air Chief Marshal Sir Cyril Newall and, from October 1940, (acting) Air Chief Marshal Sir Charles Portal. Hermann Goering, promoted to Reich Marshal by Hitler in July 1940 as a reward for the success of the air force in the conquest of France, was the German commander-in-chief for the air campaign against Britain. Dowding was a man of 58 with a long and distinguished career behind him. As a commander he was older than was usual and had been due to retire in 1939. His replacement…

DOWDING VERSUS GOERING

HITLER TURNS TO BRITAIN

The situation facing Adolf Hitler in the summer of 1940 was quite unexpected and left him uncertain as to his next moves. When German forces launched their attack on the Western states on 10 May 1940, there was no certainty that a quick victory would be the result. Yet so effective was the German battle plan, Operation Sickle Cut, that the combined forces of the Netherlands, Belgium, France and Britain were unable to prevent a swift and comprehensive defeat. The Dutch army surrendered on 14 May, and the Belgian army on 28 May. The British Expeditionary Force was forced to retreat back to Britain from Dunkirk, undefeated but without its equipment. On 17 June, France sued for an armistice and the war on Continental Europe ended after just six weeks…

HITLER TURNS TO BRITAIN

THE BATTLE BEGINS

Even before any decision had been taken to undertake an invasion of Britain, German air and naval forces had already begun operations against British trade and shipping. The German navy’s commander-in-chief, Grand Admiral Raeder, favoured a blockade of British trade by sea and air attacks which would cripple Britain’s capacity to supply its armed forces and feed the population. The idea of blockading Britain was approved by Hitler and it remained an important element in German strategy throughout the period of the Battle of Britain and the subsequent Blitz. Between June 1940 and the end of the year, more than three million tons of merchant shipping was sunk, of which around 350,000 tons was accounted for by air attack. The quantity of goods imported into Britain fell by one-fifth during…

THE BATTLE BEGINS

THE HURRICANE AND THE SPITFIRE

Two aircraft, the Hawker Hurricane and Supermarine Spitfire, were the mainstays of Fighter Command during the Battle of Britain. They were both developed in the mid-1930s during the period when the RAF was searching for a high-performance modern monoplane fighter. Both depended on the simultaneous development of the Rolls-Royce Merlin engine, without which the high performance of the two fighters would not have been possible. The Hurricane and Spitfire were very different aircraft but were created at almost exactly the same time. The Hurricane was designed in 1934–35 by the Hawker Aircraft Company’s Sydney Camm in response to an Air Ministry specification. His first design was turned down, but he immediately began a “private venture” design built around the Merlin engine which the RAF liked and ordered into production in…

THE HURRICANE AND THE SPITFIRE

DETECTING THE ENEMY

On 26 February 1935, a first experiment was carried out at Weedon in Northamptonshire which clearly demonstrated that an aircraft reflected electro-magnetic energy and that those reflections could be detected by the use of a cathode-ray apparatus. This experiment launched the British development of what became known as RDF or radio direction finding, and later still came to be called radar. Radar research was not confined to Britain. In the mid-1930s research and development work was also carried out in Germany, Japan, France, Italy, the United States, the Netherlands and the Soviet Union, though the most significant use of radar was to be found by the outbreak of war only in Britain and Germany. The first British radar sets for detecting aircraft were operational by the end of 1939. The…

DETECTING THE ENEMY

ADLERTAG 13 AUGUST 1940

The official start of the campaign to destroy the RAF, codenamed Adlerangriff (Eagle Attack) was supposed to start on 5 August, following Hitler’s directive of the first day of that month. The German air force staff decided to wait until 10 August, but poor weather reports brought postponement for a further day. The decision was finally taken to begin the campaign, despite unreliable weather, on 13 August. This was to be Adlertag, Eagle Day. Following operations against the radar network the previous day, the first wave of attacks began early in the morning. Some 200 German bombers and fighters of Air Fleets 2 and 3 approached on a broad front from bases around Amiens, Dieppe and Cherbourg. They were met in the first instance by 120 fighters, already alerted by…

ADLERTAG 13 AUGUST 1940

THE ASSAULT ON FIGHTER COMMAND AUGUST 1940

The assault on Fighter Command which began with “Eagle Day” was supposed to result in the elimination of the RAF’s capacity to contest the skies over southern England in four days of intensive operations. The attacks on RAF airfields, radar stations and communications began on 12 August and went on with differing levels of intensity until early September, long after the four days originally assigned to the campaign. Between 12 August and 6 September, there were 53 main attacks against RAF airfields, though only 32 targeted fighter stations. There were also a great many smaller attacks which were designed to keep up the pressure on the RAF’s organization, which the German air force later calculated at a figure of 1,000 raids. All but two of the attacks against the fighter…

THE ASSAULT ON FIGHTER COMMAND AUGUST 1940

WOMEN IN THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN

Women played an important though often neglected part in the Battle of Britain, not only as volunteer members of the Women’s Auxiliary Air Force (created in 1939), but also as members of the Women’s Voluntary Service formed in 1938 to offer welfare help during future bombing raids. Women were also well represented in the workforce of the rapidly expanding armaments and aviation industries. They were not allowed to fly in combat, but they ran all the risks that servicemen did if they were based at airfields or in operations rooms. During the bombing, women helpers were exposed to the same dangers faced by the male civil defence personnel. There had briefly been a Women’s Royal Air Force in 1918–20. On 28 June 1939, a new service was created out of…

WOMEN IN THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN

BIGGIN HILL 30 AUGUST 1940

Biggin Hill in Kent was perhaps the most famous of all the RAF fighter bases during the Battle of Britain. By the end of November, when two Spitfires shot down an Me 109 over the Channel, the station claimed 600 enemy aircraft destroyed. The aces who flew from Biggin Hill included Max Aitken (son of Lord Beaverbrook and a member of the “Millionaires’ Squadron”), “Sailor” Malan and John Mungo-Park. The most remarkable thing about Biggin Hill was the fact that it continued to act as a fighter station even when almost all its buildings had been destroyed in air attacks in late August 1940. The airfield had begun life in January 1917 during the First World War when the Royal Flying Corps established a Wireless Testing Park there. During the…

BIGGIN HILL 30 AUGUST 1940

THE OTHER BATTLE AIR WAR IN NORTHERN BRITAIN

The Battle of Britain is often thought of as a campaign fought out in what was called “Hell’s Corner” in the south-eastern counties of Kent and Sussex. However, the air battles were also fought over other parts of the country and particularly along the British North Sea coastline where ports and shipping were targeted by German aircraft stationed in Norway and Denmark, and by the bombers of German Air Fleet 2 stationed in north-eastern France. These attacks began in the autumn of 1939 and continued long after the end of the fighter battle in 1940. The northern areas of Britain, from the Humber Estuary to the Orkney Islands, which housed the Royal Navy’s main base at Scapa Flow, were integrated into the overall defensive air plan, but were not strongly…

THE OTHER BATTLE AIR WAR IN NORTHERN BRITAIN

CHURCHILL AND THE “FEW”

Winston Churchill’s extraordinary reputation rests more than anything else on his defiant leadership of the British people during the Battle of Britain, a phrase that he himself first used on 18 June 1940 when he announced that the battle for France was over and “the battle of Britain is about to begin”. At the very height of the battle, he famously told the House of Commons that the pilots of Fighter Command, the “few”, were battling to save civilization for the many. Churchill had always had an interest in air power and had helped to initiate long-distance bombing in 1914–15 by the Royal Naval Air Service against German airship bases. His understanding of the nature of air power was nevertheless unsophisticated and throughout the air battles of the summer of…

CHURCHILL AND THE “FEW”

The life of a pilot during the Battle of Britain had much in common on both sides of the conflict. Both air forces were an elite, more highly trained than almost any other units in the armed forces. Compared with an army, the numbers involved in flying and fighting during the Battle of Britain were tiny. The squadron organization put together small numbers of men who had to work as a team to be successful. Losses of squadron members made it necessary to create a system where newcomers could be integrated into established fighting units. Pilots could regard themselves as special, but the harsh reality of combat was a high rate of death and disablement. The German air force in 1939 had a larger and more sophisticated system of pilot…

The Battle of Britain produced a confrontation between air commanders of the highest quality. On the British side, Air Vice-Marshal Keith Park, a New Zealander who came to Britain in 1916, played a central part in devising a set of tactics which would maximize the impact that his force might have on the enemy. On the German side, the two main air fleet commanders, Field Marshal Albert Kesselring and Field Marshal Hugo Sperrle – both promoted to their rank by a grateful Hitler in July 1940 after the defeat of France – also developed flexible tactical approaches to the battle as it unfolded over the summer of 1940. The German side nevertheless laboured under a large disadvantage. The conduct of operations by Kesselring’s Air Fleet 2 and Sperrle’s Air Fleet…

AMERICANS IN FIGHTER COMMAND AUGUST 1940

Among the large number of non-British pilots who flew in the Battle of Britain were eight Americans who had volunteered to fly aircraft on the Allied side. They risked a great deal since they violated the American Neutrality Legislation of 1937. The penalty for fighting for a belligerent power was loss of US citizenship, a fine of $10,000 and a possible prison sentence. They were almost all of them very enthusiastic flyers who were eager to get out and do something more than perform air stunts or fly freight. A number of the volunteers were recruited by the American mercenary Charles Sweeny, whose network of contacts in the United States and Canada was used to supply false papers and money for potential recruits to the French air force. Another recruiting…

AMERICANS IN FIGHTER COMMAND AUGUST 1940

ALLIES IN FIGHTER COMMAND AUGUST 1940

Although the large majority of pilots in the Battle of Britain were British, around one-fifth came from Commonwealth countries and from the air forces of nations already conquered by German armies by the summer of 1940. The air effort was genuinely international and became more so as the war went on. The largest number from overseas came from New Zealand, including the commander of 11 Group himself, Keith Park. Some 127 took part in the battle, many of them volunteers from before the war. There were 30 Australians, who also joined before the outbreak of war. Most of the more than 100 Canadian pilots also arrived pre-war in order to get the opportunity to fly, the motive which had brought most of the volunteers from Australia and New Zealand. In…

ALLIES IN FIGHTER COMMAND AUGUST 1940

THE BOMBING OF LONDON 7 SEPTEMBER 1940

The first day of the “Blitz” is usually taken to be 7 September 1940. The bombing of ports and towns outside of London had been going on since July, but the first major operation against the capital – and the largest operation of its kind yet mounted by the German air force during the battle – marked a decisive shift in German strategy. This change has often been attributed to Hitler’s anger at a series of RAF raids mounted against Berlin from the night of 25–26 August. On 4 September in a speech to the German parliament, Hitler promised that he would erase British cities in retaliation. But the shift to city bombing had been foreseen in German air force planning once Fighter Command was regarded as close to defeat.…

THE BOMBING OF LONDON 7 SEPTEMBER 1940

BATTLE OF BRITAIN DAY 15 SEPTEMBER 1940

The air battles over southern England on 15 September 1940 have long been commemorated as Battle of Britain Day. At the time it was believed that 185 German aircraft had been destroyed in a single day, making for the largest victory of any day of the battle. Only after the war was it learned that the true figure was just one-third of that number. This nevertheless represented a heavy loss for the German side at a time when its leadership was still hoping that the RAF would be defeated in just a matter of days. The day symbolized the terms of the conflict between the day bombers and the British fighter force, a numerous German enemy against a smaller but well organized defence, and as such it has remained firmly…

BATTLE OF BRITAIN DAY 15 SEPTEMBER 1940

DEFEAT OF THE DAY BOMBERS

The onset of a daylight bombing campaign on 7 September forced both sides to reconsider the way the battle was being fought. Over the following week, the attacks by day continued despite mounting German losses, while at night attacks against industrial and utility targets carried on. By the end of the month, large daylight raids had become so dangerous for the German air fleets that they were finally largely abandoned by early October and the bombing effort switched to night attacks. Between 7 September and 5 October there were 35 major raids, 18 of them against London, the heaviest of these on 15 September. German bomber leaders insisted that they had to have a heavy fighter escort to avoid the high attrition rate suffered during the August attacks against airfields.…

DEFEAT OF THE DAY BOMBERS

One of the major controversies provoked by combat in the Battle of Britain was over the optimum size of the units Fighter Command put into the air to meet enemy aircraft. So serious did the arguments become that what was known as the “Big Wing” controversy cost Keith Park his job as commander of 11 Group and contributed to the efforts to remove Dowding from overall command. The origins of the controversy were to be found in the sector stations of 12 Group and in particular the Duxford station, where Douglas Bader was a squadron commander. Bader and his fellow pilots were frustrated during the main part of the battle at having to guard northern airfields and installations rather than fight in the thick of the combat in “Hell’s Corner”…

SEALION POSTPONED

For Hitler and the German High Command, the whole purpose of the Battle of Britain had been to destroy the RAF as an effective defensive force in order to open the way for a rapid invasion of southern England in September. Operation Sealion envisaged landing up to nine divisions of the 9th and 16th German armies on a front from Deal in Kent to Rottingdean in Sussex. Rapid reinforcements, supported by air forces, would then aim first for a line from Gravesend to Portsmouth, then a second line from the Essex coast to the Severn Estuary, including the capture of London. The invasion date had been fixed provisionally for 15 September. On 30 August, the date was switched to 20 September to allow the navy to complete its build-up. Barges,…

SEALION POSTPONED

END OF THE BATTLE 1-31 OCTOBER

The German change to night bombing in October 1940 transformed the nature of the air battle as Fighter Command had to switch some of its effort to contesting the new campaign. By 3 November, there were 11 night-fighter squadrons and one night-fighter flight available, composed mainly of Blenheim, Beaufighter and Defiant aircraft, but with 3.5 Hurricane squadrons as well. The night fighters could achieve little without effective radar equipment and interception of enemy aircraft was largely accidental. It was the relative failure of the night-fighter campaign that contributed to the decision to remove Dowding in November. During October 1940, the German air force lost a further 365 aircraft, but more than half the losses sustained by German bombers from October onwards were the result of accidents caused by poor weather,…

END OF THE BATTLE 1-31 OCTOBER

THE NIGHT BLITZ SEPTEMBER 1940–MAY 1941

The decision by the German high command to embark on a strategy of independent bombing from September onwards rested on an act of faith that bombing might – as so many had predicted between the wars – force an enemy to surrender without a the need for a conventional ground invasion. It is not clear that Hitler had much confidence in the outcome and he insisted in September that the air force should not engage in terror attacks for their own sake. Most of the air force commanders accepted the view that bombing people achieved very little, except dead people, while focused attacks against ports, shipping, stocks and communications might actually disrupt the British war effort sufficiently to produce the secondary effect of demoralization. Nevertheless, there were politicians and commanders…

THE NIGHT BLITZ SEPTEMBER 1940–MAY 1941

THE COSTS OF BATTLE

The costs of the Battle of Britain are difficult to assess with complete accuracy. The number of Fighter Command crew lost was once calculated at 449, but recent estimates put it at 544. Total German aircrew losses were much higher because the bombers typically carried a crew of four or five. In addition, 967 German aircrew prisoners were identified from the period between 1 July and 31 October 1940, while only 638 of the many maimed and burnt bodies that crashed on English territory could be positively identified. Hundreds of airmen on both sides were also injured, seriously wounded or simply exhausted by the long period of intense action. The number of dead was tiny in comparison with any ground action, or even the sinking of a major ship, and…

THE COSTS OF BATTLE

REMEMBERING THE BATTLE

Memory of the Battle of Britain was soon given official status when the Air Ministry produced a small 32-page booklet on the battle in March 1941. The Ministry sold over one million copies in Britain, and more in America and the Empire. The dates for the battle were set as 8 August to 31 October, but by the time the official histories were written the dates generally accepted were 10 July to 31 October, to incorporate the early raids and air battles. The major operations on 15 September were chosen to mark Battle of Britain Day and the first celebration took place in 1945, shortly after the end of the war with Japan, with a fly-past in London and a special memorial service in Westminster Abbey. The abbey was also…

REMEMBERING THE BATTLE

The publisher would like to thank the following for their help with the production of this book: Olivia Smales, IMG Squadron Leader Stuart Balfour, Royal Air Force Peter Elliott, Nina Burls and Rebecca Dalley, Royal Air Force Museum Mary Hudson, Royal Air Force Historical Branch Hugh Alexander, The National Archives, Kew Shaheeda Sabir, Curtis Brown Gill Coleridge and Cara Jones, Rogers, Coleridge and White. PHOTOGRAPHS The vast majority of photographs reproduced in this book have been taken from the collections of the Photograph Archive at the RAF Air Historical Branch. Photographs from the following sources have also been included with their permission: RAF Air Historical Branch (UK Crown Copyright. Reproduced with permission of the Controller, HMSO, London), Corbis, Bettmann, Hulton-Deutsch Collection, Underwood & Underwood, Getty Images, Popperfoto, Time & Life…

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