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12 Articles

HISTORY YEAR BY YEAR

Our experience of the present and our expectations for the future are shaped by the events that have come before us. How these events have forged the world we live in is a captivating subject. Our world’s history is so rich and varied, full of triumphs and defeats that resonate to this day. In Volume 1 of History Year by Year we took you from ancient civilisations to Medieval times. In Volume 2 we continue our voyage through history, covering the exploration of the New World and the Renaissance before moving on to the discoveries and inventions that followed and concluding with the lead up to World War I. Displayed in an illustrative timeline and packed with incredible details, facts and images, this is the ideal learning tool for people…

HISTORY YEAR BY YEAR

1 .REFORMATION AND EXPLORATION 1450–1749

1450–52 THE GREAT ZIMBABWE CIVILIZATION of southeast Africa (see 1106–10) was in decline by the mid-15th century. This coincided with the rise of the Mutapa Empire in the fertile, copper-rich uplands between the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers in present-day Zimbabwe and Mozambique. Sustained by lucrative trade in copper, cattle, ivory, slaves, and gold with into competing regional powers in the aftermath of Timur’s invasion of 1398. But in 1451, the new Afghan Lodi dynasty reasserted the sultanate’s former dominance in the region, which lasted until it was ousted by the Mughal Babur in 1526. In Europe, Florentine goldsmith Lorenzo Ghiberti completed his second set of bronze doors for the Baptistry in Florence in 1452. “NO ART, HOWEVER MINOR, DEMANDS LESS THAN TOTAL DEDICATION.” Leon Battista Alberti, Italian polymath (1404–72) Muslim…

1 .REFORMATION AND EXPLORATION 1450–1749

VOYAGES OF EXPLORATION

Christopher Columbus’s voyage across the Atlantic in 1492 sparked an unprecedented opening-up of the world – first by the Portuguese and Spanish, then by the Dutch, English, and French. By 1700, European explorers and colonizers had established themselves globally. European explorers were motivated by glory, Christian zeal, and – above all – gold, spices, and slaves. The goal was the East, source of legendary riches. With overland routes blocked by Muslim states, maritime routes offered the prospect of outflanking them. By 1488, the Portuguese had rounded southern Africa. Ten years later they reached India and, by 1512, the Spice Islands. There, they were later challenged by the Dutch The Spanish went west. Theirs was a more dramatic discovery: an unknown continent, America. By the 1550s, they had conquered two empires…

VOYAGES OF EXPLORATION

THE RENAISSANCE

A thousand years after the Roman Empire’s collapse, scholars in Florence, Italy, arrived at a renewed understanding of the art, architecture, and literature of the classical period, sparking a cultural revolution. Processional cross 15th century • ITALY The wealth of the Italian Catholic Church is expressed by this cross, made of gold, silver, and enamel, and paraded on religious holidays. Venetian gold ducat 16th century • ITALY This gold coin depicts the Doge of Venice (right) receiving the city’s banner from a dominating St. Mark the Evangelist. The Descent from the Cross c.1435 • NETHERLANDS This painting by Rogier van der Weyden (c.1399–1464) exemplifies Flemish assimilation of the Renaissance move towards idealization of faces and figures. In the 14th century, trade among European states increased and Florence, as a banking…

THE RENAISSANCE

THE STORY OF ARMS AND ARMOUR

Whether for hunting or sport, conflict or contests of skill, hand-held arms have played a crucial role in human existence and advancement. The first weapons developed out of survival tools: found objects, such as stones, were used to bludgeon prey, or to fend off predatory animals or rival humans. As prehistoric man’s skills advanced, simple clubs and stone hand-axes gave way to carefully crafted wooden spears used to hunt animals or impale fish. Even more effective weapons married wooden shafts with razor-sharp flint blades to form axes, daggers, spears, and arrowheads. Soft, easily worked metals such as copper replaced flint, followed by stronger, sharper, and longer Bronze and Iron Age swords, daggers, javelins, and battleaxes. Until the advent of firearms, the history of hand-held weapons is one of variations on…

THE STORY OF ARMS AND ARMOUR

THE RISE AND FALL OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE

AN ENDURING POWER THAT DOMINATED IN EUROPE AND THE MIDDLE EAST FOR NEARLY 500 YEARS At its height, towards the end of the 17th century, the Ottoman Empire stretched from the gates of Vienna to the Indian Ocean, and from the Crimea to Algiers. Though the Mongol leader Timur had checked Ottoman ambitions in the early 15th century, once Murad I took the throne in 1413, the expansion programme was vigorously renewed. His son, Mehmed II (r.1451–81), extended Ottoman rule across the Balkans and seized Constantinople (Istanbul) in a blaze of conquest. Under Selim I (r.1512–20), the Safavids were contained at Caldiran and much of the Middle East and North Africa was conquered. Suleiman the Magnificent (r.1520–66) expanded Ottoman territories deep into Hungary and almost as far as the Atlantic.…

THE RISE AND FALL OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE

2 THE AGE OF REVOLUTION

1750–1913 Often dramatic, war-torn, and violent, this period was also a time of remarkable technological advances in medicine, communication, and transportation – ushering in the beginnings of the modern world. 1750 THE COLONIAL BOUNDARY BETWEEN SPAIN AND PORTUGAL in the New World was settled by the Treaty of Madrid, signed on 13 January, which significantly amended the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494). The previous agreement stipulated that the Portuguese empire extend no further than 370 leagues west of the Azores (around 46 degrees west), but the new treaty took into account the extent of Portuguese settlement in Brazil. Spain hoped that by allowing Portugal some concessions it would discourage any further Portuguese territorial expansion in the region. MARQUIS OF POMBAL (1699–1782) The Marquis of Pombal was a controversial political figure, appointed…

2 THE AGE OF REVOLUTION

THE STORY OF STEAM POWER

Although the power of steam was not harnessed until the 17th century, scientists had understood its potential for hundreds of years. As far back as the 1st century CE, the Greek scientist, Hero of Alexandria, had discussed a device – the aeolipile – that illustrated the possibilities of water vapour. 1679 The first boiler French inventor Denis Papin designs a device that can convert liquid to vapour, making it the first pressure cooker 1st century CE Hero’s engine The Greek scientist Hero describes an aeolipile, which has a rotating ball that is spun by jets of steam. 1698 The high-pressure steam engine In England, Thomas Savery uses steam power to create “The Miner’s Friend” to pump water out of coal mines, though it was not a success. 1712 Newcomen’s engine…

THE STORY OF STEAM POWER

THE STORY OF MEDICINE

1750_1913 THE AGE OF REVOLUTION The understanding of the human body and disease made important advances during the 18th and 19th centuries, laying the foundation for modern medical care. Ancient practices, such as bloodletting to cure illness, were replaced with ones that were borne of a more rigorous scientific approach. People have attempted to treat disease since prehistoric times, but until the 18th century medicine was based largely on superstition, natural remedies, and unscientific practices and theories, such as the theory that the body had four fluids (humours) that needed to be in balance for health. There had been progress in anatomy and surgery, but, overall, medicine remained primitive. THE DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN MEDICINE In the 18th century, medicine started to become more scientifically rigorous, and significant advances were made,…

THE STORY OF MEDICINE

AMERICAN CIVIL WAR

The shells fired at Fort Sumter, South Carolina, in 1861 not only ripped the country in two, but began a deadly conflict that would pit families against each other, with brother fighting brother on the battlefield, as the Confederacy of Southern states took up arms in defence of slavery. ORIGINS OF THE CIVIL WAR As the US expanded, the issue of which states would be allowed to have slaves became the central political focus between North and South. By 1860, the 18 free states of the North and the 15 slave states were on the brink of war. 1820: THE MISSOURI COMPROMISE Slavery became a more pressing political issue as the US began to settle its western territories. When the Missouri territory petitioned to become a state in 1817, its…

AMERICAN CIVIL WAR

The Imperial World

Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries the world witnessed a relentless European drive to control territories all over the globe. Colonies provided not only direct supplies of valuable natural resources, but also a theatre of conflict in which Europe's antagonisms were played out. The Imperial Age saw Spain, Britain, France, Germany, Holland, Portugal, Italy, and to a lesser extent, Denmark and Sweden, scramble for territories. A country could lose colonies in one war, only to reclaim them later through trade in a wider political game. Colonies often started out as trading posts, in places such as India, but through political manoeuvring and exercising military might European countries began to take control. People living in the Americas, Africa, India, and Southeast Asia were often on the receiving end of racial prejudice…

The Imperial World

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The publisher would like to thank the following for their kind permission to reproduce their photographs: (Key: a-above; b-below/bottom; c-centre; f-far; l-left; r-right; t-top) Courtesy of 3M: 114cr. akg-images: British Library, London 60bl, 70tr; CD A / Guillemot 30-31t, 32cl, 44tc, 56cr; DE A Picture Library 30cl; Joseph Martin 38tl; Nimatallah 46-47b, 61b; North Wind Picture Archives 122tc; Ru–ssian Picture Service 145tl; Sotheby’s 71tr; Tretjakov Gallery 73r, 137tr, 144t; Ullstein Bild 158br; World History Archive / IAM 28bl; Alamy Images: AAA Photostock 33cl; Nir Alon 129cr; Antiques & Collectables 76br, 80bc; Art Directors & TRIP 51tr; The Art Archive, 14bl, 15b, 32b, 33c, 34-35t, 35tr, 35cl, 36tl, 39tr, 39c, 44-45t, 49cl, 54crb, 56tl, 58tc, 64cr, 72tr, 78tr, 93tl, 104cl, 105tr, 116tc, 120tl, 122tr, 124ca, 126tl, 130-131tc, 132tr, 141tc, 159tl; The…

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